T. Karran, ‘Academic Freedom in Europe: A Preliminary Comparative Analysis,’ Higher Education Policy 20(3) (2007) 289–313.

 T. Karran, ‘Academic Freedom in Europe: A Preliminary Comparative Analysis,’ Higher Education Policy 20(3) (2007) 289–313.)| false
• Search Google Scholar
• Export Citation

 Recom. 1762 (2006) on Academic Freedom and University Autonomy, Parliamentary Assembly, Council of Europe, para. 7.

 M. Newman, 2007, ‘u.k. Lowest on Freedom List,’ Times Higher Education, 28 September 2007 (quoting Conor Gearty, (then) Director of the Centre for the Study of Human Rights at the London School of Economics), retrieved 15 May 2016, https://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/news/uk-lowest-on-freedom-list/310603.article.

 See, e.g., K. Appiagyei-Atua, 2014, ‘A Theoretical Review of the Origins of Academic Freedom,’ University Values, 3 July 2014, retrieved 1 July 2016, https://www.scholarsatrisk.org/resources/a-theoretical-review-of-the-origins-of-academic-freedom.

 See K.D. Beiter, 2011, ‘The Doctrinal Place of the Right to Academic Freedom under the un Covenants on Human Rights,’ University Values (July 2011), https://perma.cc/6APS-UG32; K.D. Beiter, 2013, ‘The Doctrinal Place of the Right to Academic Freedom under the un Covenants on Human Rights: A Rejoinder to Antoon de Baets,’ University Values (December 2013), https://perma.cc/69V2-SRMJ.

 See A. de Baets, 2012, ‘The Doctrinal Place of the Right to Academic Freedom under the un Covenants on Human Rights: A Rejoinder,’ University Values (May 2012), https://perma.cc/M2GF-JSP7; A. de Baets, 2014, ‘Some Puzzles of Academic Freedom (Part 1),’ University Values, 3 July 2014, retrieved 1 July 2016, https://www.scholarsatrisk.org/resources/some-puzzles-of-academic-freedom-part-1; A. de Baets, 2015, ‘Some Puzzles of Academic Freedom (Parts 2 and 3),’ University Values, 9 January 2015, retrieved 1 July 2016, https://www.scholarsatrisk.org/resources/some-puzzles-of-academic-freedom-parts-2-and-3. Problems associated with considering the right to freedom of opinion and expression as the basis of the right to academic freedom are, firstly, the fact that academic freedom entails much more than free speech rights, namely, also rights of ‘free action’ (e.g. conducting an experiment), and, secondly, the fact that the free speech rights covered are, in fact, special speech rights, circumscribed by the requirements of learning, teaching, and research. See E. Barendt, Academic Freedom and the Law: A Comparative Study (Hart, 2010) 17–21. Regarding the right to respect for ‘the freedom indispensable for scientific research’ in Art. 15(3) icescr, it should be noted that this is a general right belonging to all persons undertaking scientific research (including, e.g., researchers in private industry or those in public or private specialist institutes). It may be rendered as what is termed ‘Wissenschaftsfreiheit’ in German constitutional theory, perhaps best translated as ‘the right to free scholarship.’ The right to academic freedom, on the other hand, accrues to a smaller group of right-holders – namely academic staff in he institutions (or research institutions ‘close’ to the educational milieu) – but it entails entitlements which are more far-reaching in their scope. As has been pointed out by a commentator, ‘[a]cademic freedom, as it is understood in the United Kingdom and the United States is, in contrast [to ‘Wissenschaftsfreiheit’], a special right to which only those engaged in teaching and research at universities and other comparable institutions are entitled.’ The freedom of those not working at the latter institutions ‘may be narrower than it is for university professors.’ The right to academic freedom is, however, also enjoyed by students in he, but the scope of their right is reduced when compared to that of academic staff. See ibid 37–38. For a detailed account of the doctrinal place of the right to academic freedom under the un human rights covenants, see K.D. Beiter, T. Karran and K. Appiagyei-Atua, ‘Yearning to Belong: Finding a “Home” for the Right to Academic Freedom in the u.n. Human Rights Covenants,’ Intercultural Human Rights Law Review (forthcoming Vol. 11, 2016).

 See, e.g., T. Karran, ‘Academic Freedom in Europe: Time for a Magna Charta?,’ Higher Education Policy 22(2) (2009) 163–189, or J. Vrielink et al., Academic Freedom as a Fundamental Right (League of European Research Universities, Advice Paper No. 6, December 2010), retrieved 15 May 2016, http://www.leru.org/files/publications/AP6_Academic_final_Jan_2011.pdf, for a discussion of the various elements (rights, duties, responsibilities) of the right to academic freedom. See also General Comment No. 13 (n 28) paras. 38–40. The unesco Recommendation thus contains provisions on ‘Institutional autonomy’ (v.a.), paras. 17–21, ‘Institutional accountability’ (v.b.), paras. 22–24, ‘Individual rights and freedoms: civil rights, academic freedom, publication rights, and the international exchange of information’ (vi.a.), paras. 25–30, ‘Self-governance and collegiality’ (vi.b.), paras. 31–32, ‘Duties and responsibilities of higher-education teaching personnel’ (vii), paras. 33–36, and ‘Security of employment’ (ix.b.), paras. 45–46.

 See, e.g., T. Karran, ‘Academic Freedom in Europe: Time for a Magna Charta?,’ Higher Education Policy 22(2) (2009) 163–189, or J. Vrielink et al., Academic Freedom as a Fundamental Right (League of European Research Universities, Advice Paper No. 6, December 2010), retrieved 15 May 2016, http://www.leru.org/files/publications/AP6_Academic_final_Jan_2011.pdf, for a discussion of the various elements (rights, duties, responsibilities) of the right to academic freedom. See also General Comment No. 13 (n 28) paras. 38–40. The unesco Recommendation thus contains provisions on ‘Institutional autonomy’ (v.a.), paras. 17–21, ‘Institutional accountability’ (v.b.), paras. 22–24, ‘Individual rights and freedoms: civil rights, academic freedom, publication rights, and the international exchange of information’ (vi.a.), paras. 25–30, ‘Self-governance and collegiality’ (vi.b.), paras. 31–32, ‘Duties and responsibilities of higher-education teaching personnel’ (vii), paras. 33–36, and ‘Security of employment’ (ix.b.), paras. 45–46.)| false
• Search Google Scholar
• Export Citation

 Already in 1966, unesco adopted a Recommendation concerning the Status of Teachers, applicable to teachers in schools from the pre-primary up to completion of the secondary level of education.

 R. Quinn, ‘Defending “Dangerous” Minds: Reflections on the Work of the Scholars at Risk Network,’ Items & Issues 5(1–2) (2004) 1–5, at 1.

 R. Quinn, ‘Defending “Dangerous” Minds: Reflections on the Work of the Scholars at Risk Network,’ Items & Issues 5(1–2) (2004) 1–5, at 1.)| false
• Search Google Scholar
• Export Citation

 W. Nelson Espeland and M. Sauder, ‘Rankings and Reactivity: How Public Measures Re­create Social Worlds,’ American Journal of Sociology 113(1) (July 2007) 1–40, specifically at 2.

 W. Nelson Espeland and M. Sauder, ‘Rankings and Reactivity: How Public Measures Re­create Social Worlds,’ American Journal of Sociology 113(1) (July 2007) 1–40, specifically at 2.)| false
• Search Google Scholar
• Export Citation

 See Maltese Constitution 1964, art. 45(1), (3), (4)(b). See n 138 above regarding Hungary. For detail on individual state performance regarding Indicator A.2.5., see the Annex.

 Augstskolu likums, 2 November 1995, Latvijas Vēstnesis 179 (462), 17 November 1995, Ziņotājs 1, 11 January 1996. To mention another example, also Croatia’s recent Act on Science and Higher Education of 2013 (Zakon o znanstvenoj djelatnosti i visokom obrazovanju, Narodne novine broj 123/03, 198/03, 105/04, 174/04, 2/07 – ousrh, 46/07, 45/09, 63/11, 94/13, 139/13) clearly articulates that academic freedom constitutes a guiding principle: Art. 2(3) states: ‘Higher education shall be based on: – Academic freedom, academic self-governance, and university autonomy, … – Reciprocity and partnership among members of the academic community, – the European humanistic and democratic tradition … – Respect for and recognition of human rights, ….’ Art. 4(2) and (3) further provide for academic freedom, academic self-governance, and university autonomy ‘in accordance with the Constitution, international agreements and this Act.’

 Education Reform Act, 1988, ch. 40.

 Högskolelag, 17 December 1992, sfs No. 1992:1434, ch. 3, §§ 2 (1st sent.), 6, respectively. The accompanying Higher Education Ordinance of 1993 (Högskoleförordning, 4 February 1993, sfs No. 1993:100) does lay down requirements in respect of professors and senior lecturers (e.g. qualifications, assessment criteria, and appointment procedures), but these rather give expression to broader principles applicable. See ch. 4.

 Education Reform Act, 1988, ch. 40, § 125(2), sched. 7A, para. 3.

 Legge, 30 dicembre 2010, n. 240, Norme in materia di organizzazione delle università, di personale accademico e reclutamento, nonché delega al Governo per incentivare la qualità e l’efficienza del sistema universitario, Gazz. Uff. 14 January 2011, No. 10, S.O. No. 11.

 See Georg Krücken, ‘Lässt sich Wissenschaft managen?,’ Wissenschaftsrecht 41(4) (2008) 345–358 (generally expressing doubt as to whether science and research are susceptible to ‘management principles’ whatsoever).

 See Georg Krücken, ‘Lässt sich Wissenschaft managen?,’ Wissenschaftsrecht 41(4) (2008) 345–358 (generally expressing doubt as to whether science and research are susceptible to ‘management principles’ whatsoever).)| false
• Search Google Scholar
• Export Citation

 Wet van 8 oktober 1992, houdende bepalingen met betrekking tot het hoger onderwijs en wetenschappelijk onderzoek (whw), Stb. 1992, 593, ch. 9, tit. 1, arts. 9.3.1.-2., 9.7., 9.8.1.a.

 Cf. L. Elton, ‘Collegiality and Complexity: Humboldt’s Relevance to British Universities Today,’ Higher Education Quarterly 62(3) (2008) 224–236, at 232 (stressing the need for ‘a democratic form of leadership, distributed throughout an organisation, very different from the current form of top-down leadership’ in he), and at 233 (emphasising that the vice-chancellor should be the ‘university’s first servant’). Cf. also M. Shattock, ­‘Re-balancing Modern Concepts of University Governance,’ Higher Education Quarterly 56(3) (2002) 235–244, at 240 (arguing in support of ‘moving back to a more evenly balanced approach to governance – the “shared governance” concept’).

 Cf. L. Elton, ‘Collegiality and Complexity: Humboldt’s Relevance to British Universities Today,’ Higher Education Quarterly 62(3) (2008) 224–236, at 232 (stressing the need for ‘a democratic form of leadership, distributed throughout an organisation, very different from the current form of top-down leadership’ in he), and at 233 (emphasising that the vice-chancellor should be the ‘university’s first servant’). Cf. also M. Shattock, ­‘Re-balancing Modern Concepts of University Governance,’ Higher Education Quarterly 56(3) (2002) 235–244, at 240 (arguing in support of ‘moving back to a more evenly balanced approach to governance – the “shared governance” concept’).)| false
• Search Google Scholar
• Export Citation

 Education Reform Act, 1988, ch. 40, sched. 7A, para. 3 (composition of governing body).

 See, e.g., A. Sartor, 2013, ‘Forschen auf Zeit: Wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiter sind meistens befristet angestellt – warum eigentlich?,’ Zeit Online, 18 June 2013, retrieved 15 May 2016, http://www.zeit.de/campus/2013/04/wissenschaftliche-mitarbeiter-befristung.

 Ambtenarenwet van 12 december 1929, bwbr0001947.

 R. Boden and D. Epstein, ‘A Flat Earth Society? Imagining Academic Freedom,’ Sociological Review 59(3) (2011) 476–495, at 481 (citing M. Waring, ‘Labouring in the Augean Stables? hrm and the Reconstitution of the Academic Worker,’ International Journal of Management Concepts and Philosophy 3(3) (2009) 257–274 in this respect).

 R. Boden and D. Epstein, ‘A Flat Earth Society? Imagining Academic Freedom,’ Sociological Review 59(3) (2011) 476–495, at 481 (citing M. Waring, ‘Labouring in the Augean Stables? hrm and the Reconstitution of the Academic Worker,’ International Journal of Management Concepts and Philosophy 3(3) (2009) 257–274 in this respect).)| false
• Search Google Scholar
• Export Citation