There is a pressing need to focus attention on hyperfemininity as a valid and valued form of gender expression and feminist protest within contemporary social media. As resistance against the heteropatriarchal gender expectations that influence femininity and that produce femmephobia, we focus our analysis on the social media #girlhood meme trend that, we suggest, embraces a wide range of femme practices through the re-mixing of fem(me)ininity and femme-ness, while critiquing heteropatriarchal norms. We trace the circulation of #girlhood, including coquette aesthetics, #barbiecore, and #bimbofeminism, outlining how these playful expressions of femininity contribute to subverting expectations of “successful” femme bodies. We argue that if gender norms are scripts that prescribe and describe how we must act, then widening the range of acceptable feminine behaviour through hyperfemininity, as manifest in #girlhood memes, is crucial for changing how we discipline femme bodies and how we analyze femininity within media studies.
Purchase
Buy instant access (PDF download and unlimited online access):
Institutional Login
Log in with Open Athens, Shibboleth, or your institutional credentials
Personal login
Log in with your brill.com account
Adamczyk, A., and Hinchliffe, E. (2024, January 5). What Comes After the Year of the Girl? Fortune. https://fortune.com/2024/01/05/2023-year-of-the-girl-girlhood-trend/.
Ahmed, S. (2004). The Cultural Politics of Emotion. Edinburgh University Press; jstor. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1g09x4q.
Ahmed, S. (2010). The Promise of Happiness. Duke University Press.
Ahmed, S. (2014). ‘Selfcare as Warfare’, feministkilljoys, 25 August 2014: https://feministkill-joys.com/2014/08/25/selfcare-as-warfare/.
Ahmed, S. (2017). Living a Feminist Life. Duke University Press.
Anable, A. (2018). Platform Studies. Feminist Media Histories 4 (2), pp. 135–140.
Bacon, T. (2023, December 12). 2023: The Year of the Girl. dazed. https://www.dazeddigital.com/life-culture/article/61545/1/2023-was-the-year-of-the-girl-barbie-taylor-swift-era-tour-tiktok-trends.
Banet-Weiser, S. (2018). Empowered: Popular Feminism and Popular Misogyny. Duke University Press.
Banet-Weiser, S., and Miltner, K.M. (2016). MasculinitySoFragile: Culture, Structure, and Networked Misogyny. Feminist Media Studies 16 (1), pp. 171–174.
Barker, T. (2023, July). There’s No Escaping Barbiecore. HighsNobiety. https://www.highsnobiety.com/p/what-is-barbiecore-shop-now/.
Baym, N.K. (2015). Personal Connections in the Digital Age. Polity.
Black, C. (2024, April 19). To Black Women, “Girlhood”is More than a Trend. Essence. https://www.essence.com/beauty/black-femininity-girlhood-girlcore-self-care/.
Bordo, S. (1993). Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body. University of California Press.
Börzsei, L.K. (2013). Make a Meme Instead: A Concise History of Internet Memes. New Media Studies Magazine 7 (1), pp. 152–189.
Caruso, S. (2023, July 19). What is Barbiecore? Everything to Know about the Viral Fashion Trend Inspired by Barbie. People. https://people.com/style/barbiecore-fashion-trend-everything-to-know/.
Collins, P.H. (1990). Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. Hyman.
Conley, T. (2017). Decoding Black Feminist Hashtags as Becoming. The Black Scholar 43 (3), pp. 22–32.
Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory, and Antiracist Politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum pp. 139–167.
Cvajner, M. (2011). Hyper-Femininity as Decency: Beauty, Womanhood, and Respect in Emigration. Ethnography 12 (3), pp. 355–374.
Deacon, D., Pickering, M., Golding, P., and Murdock, G. (eds). (2021). Researching Communications: A Practical Guide to Methods in Media and Cultural Analysis (3rd edition). Bloomsbury.
Dodge, A. (2015). Digitizing Rape Culture: Online Sexual Violence and the Power of the Digital Photograph. Crime, Media, Culture 12 (1), pp. 65–82.
Foss, S.K. (2012). Framing the Study of Visual Rhetoric: Toward a Transformation of Rhetorical Theory. In: C.A. Hill and M. Helmers, eds., Defining Visual Rhetorics. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 303–314.
Gilbert, M.A. (2009). Defeating Biogenderism: Changing Gender Assumptions in the Twenty-First Century. Hypatia 24 (3), pp. 93–112.
Gill, R. (2007). Gender and the Media. Polity Press.
Gill, R. (2008). Empowerment/Sexism: Figuring Female Sexual Agency in Contemporary Advertising. Feminism and Psychology 18 (35), pp. 35–60.
Gill, R. (2016). Postfeminism and the New Cultural Life of Feminism. Diffractions 6, pp. 21–41.
Gillespie, T. (2010). The Politics of ‘Platforms.’ New Media and Society 12 (3), pp. 347–364.
Ging, D. (2017). Alphas, Betas, and Incels: Theorizing the Masculinities of the Manosphere. Men and Masculinities pp. 1–20.
Ging, D., and Siapera, E., eds. (2019). Gender Hate Online: Understanding the New Anti-Feminism. Palgrave.
Gries, L.E. (2015). Current Matters. In: Still Life with Rhetoric: A New Materialist Approach for Visual Rhetorics. Utah State University Press, pp. 1–22.
Halberstam, J. (2011). The Queer art of Failure. Durham, N.C: Duke University Press.
Haraway, D.J. (1988). Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective. Feminist Studies 14 (3), pp. 575–599.
Harding, S. (1993). Rethinking Standpoint Epistemology: What is Strong Objectivity? In: Feminist Epistemologies. New York and London: Routledge. pp. 49–82.
Hartsock, Nancy C.M. (1983). The Feminist Standpoint: Developing the Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism. In: S. Harding and M.B. Hintikka, eds., Discovering Reality. Synthese Library. Vol. 161. Springer Netherlands. pp. 283–31.
Hering, E. (2023, December 27). The Girl Economy of TikTok. Medium. https://e-hering.medium.com/the-girl-economy-of-tiktok-1b7f0ec90185.
Holland, S., and Harpin, J. (2013). Who is the ‘Girly Girl’? Tomboys, Hyper-Femininity and Gender. Journal of Gender Studies 24 (3), pp. 292–309.
hooks, b. (1981). Ain’t I a Woman: Black Women and Feminism. South End Press.
Hoskin, R.A. (2019). Femmephobia: The Role of Anti-Femininity and Gender Policing in lgbtq+ People’s Experiences of Discrimination. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research 81, pp. 686–703.
Hoskin, R.A. (2020). “Femininity? It’s the Aesthetic of Subordination”: Examining Femmephobia, the Gender Binary, and Experiences of Oppression Among Sexual and Gender Minorities. Archives of Sexual Behaviour 49, pp. 2319–2339.
Hoskin, R.A. and Blair K.L. (2022). Critical Femininities: A ‘New’ Approach to Gender Theory. Psychology and Sexuality 13 (1), pp. 1–8.
Hoskin, R.A., and Blair, K. (2024). The Femme Factor: Transforming Pop Culture Analyses Through Femme Theory. Sexualities 0 (0), pp. 1–17.
Hoskin, R., and Taylor, A. (2019). Femme Resistance: The Fem(me)inine Art of Failure. Psychology & Sexuality 10. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2019.1615538.
Hoskin, R.A., Blair, K.L., and Holmberg, D. (2024). Femmephobia is a Uniquely Powerful Predictor of Anti-Gay Behavior. Archives of Sexual Behavior 53 (1), pp. 127–140.
Huntington, H.E. (2013). Subversive Memes: Internet Memes as a Form of Visual Rhetoric. Selected Papers of Internet Research 14, pp. 1–4.
Huntington, H.E. (2016). Pepper Spray Cop and the American Dream: Using Synecdoche and Metaphor to Unlock Internet Memes’ Visual Political Rhetoric. Communication Studies 67 (1), pp. 77–93.
Jane, E.A. (2017). Misogyny Online: A Short (and brutish) History. London: Sage.
Jane, E.A. (2018). Systemic Misogyny Exposed: Translating Rapeglish from the Manosphere with a Random rape Threat Generator. International Journal of Cultural Studies 21 (6), pp. 661–680.
Jenkins, H. (2006). Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide. NYU Press.
Kahn, M. (2023, September 14). Girlhood is Trending, but Actual Girlhood has Never been More Fraught. Instyle Magazine. https://www.instyle.com/girlhood-trend-failing-real-girls-7964043.
Keller, J., and Ryan, M.E. (2018). Emergent Feminisms: Complicating a Postfeminist Media Culture. New York: Routledge.
Khosravi-Ooryad, S. (2024). Memeing Back at Misogyny: Emerging Meme-Feminism, Visual Tactics, and Aesthetic World-Building on Iranian Social Media. Feminist Media Studies pp. 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2024.2319423.
Know Your Meme. (2023, February 15). Girlhood is a Spectrum. https://knowyourmeme.com/memes/girlhood-is-a-spectrum.
Kramer, E. (2011). The Playful is Political: The Metapragmatics of Internet Rape-Joke Arguments. Language in Society 40 (2), pp. 137–168.
Latour, B. (2005). Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory. Oxford: Clarendon.
Latzko-Toth, G., Bonneau, C., and Millette, M. (2017). Small Data, Thick Data: Thickening Strategies for Trace-Based Social Media Research. In: S. Sloan and A. Quan-Haase, eds., ThesageHandbook of Social Media Research Methods. Sage. pp. 99–214.
Lorde, A. (1984). Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches. New York: Trumanberg.
MacDonald, S., Wiens, B.I., MacArthur, M., and Radzikowska, M. eds. (2021). Networked Feminisms: Activist Assemblies and Digital Practices. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
Massanari, A.L., and Chess, S. (2018). Attack of the 50-foot Social Justice Warrior: the Discursive Construction of sjw Memes as the Monstrous Feminine. Feminist Media Studies 18 (4), pp. 525–542.
McRobbie, A. (2004). Post‐Feminism and Popular Culture. Feminist Media Studies 4 (3), pp. 255–64.
McRobbie, A. (2009). The Aftermath of Feminism: Gender, Culture and Social Change. Sage Publications.
McWebb, A., and Luan, R. (forthcoming 2024). Are We the Bimbos from Hell? un(Disturbed): A Journal of Feminist Voices 1 (1).
Milner, R.M. (2013). Hacking the Social: Internet Memes, Identity, Antagonism, and the Logic of Lulz. The Fibreculture Journal (22), pp. 62–92.
Milner, R.M. (2016). The World Made Meme. MITPress.
Miltner, K.M. (2014). “There’s No Place for Lulz on LOLCats”: The Role of Genre, Gender, and Group Identity in the Interpretation and Enjoyment of an Internet Meme. First Monday 19 (8).
Mulvaney, D. (2022-Present). Days of Girlhood. https://www.tiktok.com/@dylanmulvaney/playlist/DAYS%20OF%20GIRLHOOD-7075750430805855022?lang=en.
National Institute for Mental Health. (2023, July). Transforming the Understanding and Treatment of Mental Illness: Major Depression. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/major-depression.
Nelson, M. (2017). Insulting Middle-Ginger Gestures Among Ancient Greeks and Romans. Phoenix 71 (1/2), pp. 66–88.
Noble, S.U. (2018). Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism. New York University Press.
Olson, L.C., Finnegan, C.A., and Hope, D.S. (2008). Visual Rhetoric: A Reader in Communication and American Culture. Sage Publications.
Palinkas, L.A. et al. (2015). Purposeful Sampling for Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis in Mixed Method Implementation Research. Adm Policy Ment Health 4 (5), pp. 533–544.
Phillips, W. (2016). This Is Why We Can’t Have Nice Things: Mapping the Relationship between Online Trolling and Mainstream Culture. MIT Press.
Ringrose, J., and Barajas, K.E. (2011). Gendered Risks and Opportunities? Exploring Teen Girls’ Digitized Sexual Identities in Postfeminist Media Contexts. International Journal of Media & Cultural Politics 7 (2), pp. 121–138.
Rosaria, M., and Wijaya, A. (2022). Bimbofication to Empower: Representation of Hyperfemininity on TikTok. Susastra 11 (1). http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2016.1276819.
Ross, A.S., and Rivers, D.J. (2017). Digital Cultures of Political Participation: Internet Memes and the Discursive Delegitimization of the 2016 U.S Presidential Candidates. Discourse, Context and Media 16, pp. 1–11.
Schwartz, A. (2020). Soft Femme Theory: Femme Internet Aesthetics and the Politics of “Softness.” Social Media + Society 6 (4), p. 2056305120978366. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120978366.
Shifman, L. (2014). Memes in Digital Culture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Sullivan, K. [@superkeara]. (2023 March 11). Girlhood is a Tricky Tricky Thing [Video]. TikTok. https://www.tiktok.com/@superkeara/video/7209489821658615082.
Turkle, S. (2011). Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other. Basic Books.
van Dijck, J. (2013). Culture of Connectivity: A Critical History of Social Media. Oxford: Oxford UP.
Wasserman, R. (2016). What does it Mean When We Call Women Girls? Literary Hub. https://lithub.com/what-does-it-mean-when-we-call-women-girls/.
Wiens, B.I. (2021). Virtual Dwelling: Feminist Orientations to Digital Communities. In: S. MacDonald, B.I. Wiens, M. MacArthur and M. Radzikowska, eds., Networked Feminisms: Activist Assemblies and Digital Practices. Lexington Books. pp. 85–107.
Wiens, B.I. (2022). How to Use Creative and Embodied Digital Methods. In: K. Gregory ed., sageResearch Methods: Doing Research Online. Sage Publications. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781529608359.
Wiens, B.I., and MacDonald, S. (2024). Dwelling as Method: Lingering in/with Feminist Curated Data Sets on Instagram. Special Issue ofjdsr: Methodological Developments in Visual Politics & Protest 6 (2), pp. 27–45.
Wiens, B.I., MacArthur, M., MacDonald, S., and Radzikowska, M. eds. (2023). Stories of Feminist Protest and Resistance: Digital Performative Assemblies. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
Woolf, V. (1929). A Room of One’s Own. Lightning Source Publishing.
All Time | Past 365 days | Past 30 Days | |
---|---|---|---|
Abstract Views | 756 | 756 | 422 |
Full Text Views | 47 | 47 | 31 |
PDF Views & Downloads | 112 | 112 | 64 |
There is a pressing need to focus attention on hyperfemininity as a valid and valued form of gender expression and feminist protest within contemporary social media. As resistance against the heteropatriarchal gender expectations that influence femininity and that produce femmephobia, we focus our analysis on the social media #girlhood meme trend that, we suggest, embraces a wide range of femme practices through the re-mixing of fem(me)ininity and femme-ness, while critiquing heteropatriarchal norms. We trace the circulation of #girlhood, including coquette aesthetics, #barbiecore, and #bimbofeminism, outlining how these playful expressions of femininity contribute to subverting expectations of “successful” femme bodies. We argue that if gender norms are scripts that prescribe and describe how we must act, then widening the range of acceptable feminine behaviour through hyperfemininity, as manifest in #girlhood memes, is crucial for changing how we discipline femme bodies and how we analyze femininity within media studies.
All Time | Past 365 days | Past 30 Days | |
---|---|---|---|
Abstract Views | 756 | 756 | 422 |
Full Text Views | 47 | 47 | 31 |
PDF Views & Downloads | 112 | 112 | 64 |