Do you want to stay informed about this journal? Click the buttons to subscribe to our alerts.
Green roofs can mitigate a number of urban environmental problems when green roof plant communities provide ecosystem services. However, this perspective may fail to address ecological aspects of the plant community. In particular, it does not account for the potential for green roofs to facilitate biological invasions. We consider current research in green roof ecology in light of the literature on biological invasions, focusing on plant invasion. We evaluate the role of species composition and novel communities, species interactions, succession, and dispersal on the trajectory of green roof plant communities. Green roofs have the potential to introduce invasive species through initial plantings, to become dominated by invasive species, and to spread invasive species, and we provide recommendations for plant selection and maintenance to reduce the risks of facilitating plant invasions to surrounding communities.
Purchase
Buy instant access (PDF download and unlimited online access):
Institutional Login
Log in with Open Athens, Shibboleth, or your institutional credentials
Personal login
Log in with your brill.com account
Aikio S, , Duncan RP, , Hulme PE. 2010. Lag-phases in alien plant invasions: separating the facts from the artefacts. Oikos. 119:370–378.
Ampim P, , Sloan J, , Cabrera R, , Harp D, , Jaber F. 2010. Green roof growing substrates: types, ingredients, composition and properties. J Environ Hortic. 28:244–252.
Aronson J, , Floret C, , LeFloc'h E, , Ovalle C, , Pontanier R. 1993. Restoration and rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems in arid and semi-arid lands. I. A view from the South. Restoration Ecol. 1:8–17.
Baker HG, , Stebbins GL, . 1965. Characteristics and modes of origin of weeds. In: Baker HG, , Stebbins GL, editors. The genetics of colonizing species: Proceedings of the First International Union of Biological Sciences Symposia on General Biology. New York (NY): Academic Press; pp. 147–168.
Bates AJ, , Sadler JP, , Mackay R. 2013. Vegetation development over four years on two green roofs in the UK. Urban For Urban Greening. 12:98–108.
Berndtsson JC2010. Green roof performance towards management of runoff water quantity and quality: A review. Ecological Eng. 36:351–360.
Bertness MD, , Callaway R. 1994. Positive interactions in communities. Trends Ecol Evol. 9:191–193.
Bousselot J, , Slabe T, , Klett J, , Koski R. 2013. Photovoltaic array influences the growth of green roof plants. Paper Presented at: Cities Alive: 11th Annual Green Roof & Wall Conference. San Francisco, CA.
Broennimann O, , Treier UA, , Müller‐Schärer H, , Thuiller W, , Peterson AT, , Guisan A. 2007. Evidence of climatic niche shift during biological invasion. Ecol Lett. 10:701–709.
Butler C, , Butler E, , Orians CM. 2012. Native plant enthusiasm reaches new heights: Perceptions, evidence, and the future of green roofs. Urban For Urban Greening. 11:1–10.
Butler C, , Orians CM. 2011. Sedum cools soil and can improve neighboring plant performance during water deficit on a green roof. Ecol Eng. 37:1786–1803.
Callaway RM, , Walker LR. 1997. Competition and facilitation: a synthetic approach to interactions in plant communities. Ecology. 78:1958–1965.
Catford JA, , Jansson R, , Nilsson C. 2009. Reducing redundancy in invasion ecology by integrating hypotheses into a single theoretical framework. Divers Distribution. 15:22–40.
Choler P, , Michalet R, , Callaway RM. 2001. Facilitation and competition on gradients in alpine plant communities. Ecology. 82:3295–3308.
Chytrý M, , Maskell LC, , Pino J, , Pyšek P, , Vilà M, , Font X, , Smart SM. 2008. Habitat invasions by alien plants: a quantitative comparison among Mediterranean, subcontinental and oceanic regions of Europe. J Appl Ecol. 45:448–458.
Colautti RI, , Grigorovitch IA, , MacIsaac HJ. 2006. Propagule pressure: a null model for biological invasions. Biol Invasions. 8:1023–1037.
Cook-Patton SC, , Bauerle TL. 2012. Potential benefits of plant diversity on vegetated roofs: a literature review. J Environ Manag. 106:85–92.
Cruz JC, , Ramos JA, , da Silva LP, , Tenreiro PQ, , Heleno RH. 2013. Seed dispersal networks in an urban novel ecosystem. Eur J For Res. 132:887–897.
Davis M, , Grime J, , Thompson K. 2000. Fluctuating resources in plant communities: a general theory of invasibility. J Ecol. 88:528–534.
Dvorak B, , Volder A. 2010. Green roof vegetation for North American ecoregions: a literature review. Landscape Urban Plann. 96:197–213.
Dvorak BD, , Volder A. 2012. Plant establishment on unirrigated green roof modules in a subtropical climate. AoB Plants. 5:pls049.
Dunnett N.2006. Green roofs for biodiversity: Reconciling aesthetics with ecology. Paper presented at: Fourth Annual Greening Rooftops for sustainable communities; Boston, MA.
Dunnett N, , Nagase A, , Hallam A. 2008. The dynamics of planted and colonising species on a green roof over six growing seasons 2001–2006: influence of substrate depth. Urban Ecosyst. 11:373–384.
EDDMapS Ontario. 2014. Early Detection & Distribution Mapping System for Ontario [Internet]. The University of Georgia – Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. Available from: http://www.eddmaps.org/ontario/
Elton CS.1958. The ecology of invasions by animals and plants. London: Methuen.
Emilsson T.2008. Vegetation development on extensive vegetated green roofs: influence of substrate composition, establishment method and species mix. Ecol Eng. 33:265–277.
Francis RA, , Lorimer J. 2011. Urban reconciliation ecology: the potential of living roofs and walls. J Environ Manag. 92:1429–37.
Getter K, , Rowe D. 2007. Effect of substrate depth and planting season on Sedum plug survival on green roofs. J Environ Hortic. 25:95–9.
Gallagher RV, , Beaumont LJ, , Hughes L, , Leishman MR. 2010. Evidence for climatic niche and biome shifts between native and novel ranges in plant species introduced to Australia. J Ecol. 98:790–799.
Gómez-Aparicio L, , Zamora R, , Gómez JM, , Hódar JA, , Castro J. 2004. Applying plant facilitation to forest restoration: a meta-analysis of the use of shrubs as nurse plants. Ecol Appl. 14:1128–1138.
Grime J.1977. Evidence for the existence of three primary strategies in plants and its relevance to ecological and evolutionary theory. Am Naturalist. 111:1169–1194.
Gurevitch J, , Fox GA, , Wardle GM, , Inderjit Taub D. 2011. Emergent insights from the synthesis of conceptual frameworks for biological invasions. Ecol Lett. 14:407–418.
Heim A, , Lundholm J. 2014. Species interactions in green roof vegetation suggest complementary planting mixtures. Landscape Urban Plann. 130:125–133.
Hillebrand H, , Bennett DM, , Cadotte MW. 2008. Consequences of dominance: a review of evenness effects on local and regional ecosystem processes. Ecology. 89:1510–1520.
Ignatieva M, , Stewart GH, , Meurk CD. 2008. Low impact urban design and development (LIUDD): matching urban design and urban ecology. Landscape Rev. 12:61–73.
Jones J.2000. Effectiveness of hand-pulling the invasive mossy stonecrop (Sedum acre L.) from alvar pavements. Michigan Botanist. 39:43–50.
Kadas G.2006. Rare invertebrates colonizing green roofs in London. Urban Habitats. 4:66–86.
Köhler M.2006. Long-term vegetation research on two extensive green roofs in Berlin. Urban Habitats. 4:3–26.
Köhler M, , Poll PH. 2010. Long-term performance of selected old Berlin greenroofs in comparison to younger extensive greenroofs in Berlin. Ecol Eng. 36:722–729.
Kowarik I., 1995. Time lags in biological invasions with regard to the success and failure of alien species. In: Pyšek P, , Prach K, , Rejmánek M, , Wade M, editors. Plant invasions: general aspects and special problems; International Workshop on Plant Invasions, Kostelec nad Černými lesy, Czech Republic. Amsterdam: SPB Academic Publishing; pp. 15–38.
Laughlin DC.2014. Applying trait-based models to achieve functional targets for theory-driven ecological restoration. Ecol Lett. 17:771–784.
Lehan NE, Murphy JR, Thorburn LP, Bradley BA. 2013. Accidental introductions are an important source of invasive plants in the continental United States. Am J Bot. 100:1287–1293.
Lockwood JL, , Hoopes MF, , Marchetti MP. 2013. Invasion ecology. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell.
Lonsdale W.1999. Global patterns of plant invasions and the concept of invasibility. Ecology. 80:1522–1536.
Lowry E, , Rollinson EJ, , Laybourn AJ, , Scott TE, , Aeillo-Lammens ME, , Gray SM, , Mickley J, , Gurevitch J. 2013. Biological invasions: a field synopsis, systematic review and database of the literature. Ecol Evol. 3:182–196.
Lugo AE.2004. The outcome of alien tree invasions in Puerto Rico. Front Ecol Environ. 2:265–273.
Lundholm JT.2006. Green roofs and facades: a habitat template approach. Urban Habitats. 4:87–101.
Lundholm JT, , MacIvor S, , MacDougall Z, , Ranalli M. 2010. Plant species and functional group combinations affect green roof ecosystem functions. PLOS ONE. 5(3):e9677.
MacIvor JS, , Lundholm J. 2011. Performance evaluation of native plants suited to extensive green roof conditions in a maritime climate. Ecol Eng. 37:407–417.
MacIvor JS, , Margolis L, , Puncher CL, , Carver Matthews BJ. 2013. Decoupling factors affecting plant diversity and cover on extensive green roofs. J Environ Manag. 130:297–305.
Madre F, , Vergnes A, , Machon N, , Clergeau P. 2014. Green roofs as habitats for wild plant species in urban landscapes: first insights from a large-scale sampling. Landscape Urban Plann. 122:100–107.
Matzek V, Covino J, Funk JL, Saunders M. 2014. Closing the knowing–doing gap in invasive plant management: accessibility and interdisciplinarity of scientific research. Conserv Lett. 7:208–215.
Monterusso M, , Rowe D, , Rugh C. 2005. Establishment and persistence of Sedum spp. and native taxa for green roof applications. HortScience. 40:391–396.
Nagase A, , Dunnett N. 2010. Drought tolerance in different vegetation types for extensive green roofs: effects of watering and diversity. Landscape Urban Plann. 97:318–327.
Nagase A, , Dunnett N, , Choi M-S. 2013. Investigation of weed phenology in an establishing semi-extensive green roof. Ecol Eng. 58:156–64.
Oberndorfer E, , Lundholm J, , Bass B, , Coffman RR, , Doshi H, , Dunnett N, , Gaffin S, , Köhler M, , Liu KKY, , Rowe B. 2007. Green roofs as urban ecosystems: ecological structures, functions, and services. Bioscience. 57:823–833.
Palmer MA, Ambrose RF, Poff NL. 1997. Ecological theory and community restoration ecology. Restor Ecol. 5:291–300.
Papafotiou M, , Pergialioti N, , Tassoula L, , Massas I, , Kargas G. 2013. Growth of native aromatic xerophytes in an extensive Mediterranean green roof as affected by substrate type and depth and irrigation frequency. HortScience. 48:1327–1333.
Parsons WFJ, , Ehrenfeld JG, , Handel SN. 2002. Vertical growth and mycorrhizal infection of woody plant roots as potential limits to the restoration of woodlands on landfills. Restoration Ecol. 6:280–289.
Pec GJ, , Carlton GC. 2014. Positive effects of non-native grasses on the growth of a native annual in a southern California ecosystem. PLOS ONE. 9:e112437.
Petitpierre B, , Kueffer C, , Broennimann O, , Randin C, , Daehler C, , Guisan A. 2012. Climatic niche shifts are rare among terrestrial plant invaders. Science. 335:1344–1348.
Provenzano ME. 2011. Plant agronomic performance and selection for green roofs under Mediterranean and maritime climate conditions [dissertation]. Viterbo (Italy): Tuscia University.
Pysek P, Richardson DM. 2007. Traits associated with invasiveness in alien plants: where do we stand? In: Nentwig W, editor. Biological invasions. Heidelberg: Springer; p. 97–125.
Razzaghmanesh M, , Beecham S, , Kazemi F. 2014. The growth and survival of plants in urban green roofs in a dry climate. Sci Total Environ. 476–477:288–297.
Reichard SH, White P. 2001. Horticulture as a pathway of invasive plant introductions in the United States. BioScience. 51:103–113.
Rejmánek M, , Richardson DM. 1996. What attributes make some plant species more invasive? Ecology. 77:1655–1661.
Rowe DB, , Getter KL, , Durhman AK. 2012. Effect of green roof media depth on Crassulacean plant succession over seven years. Landscape Urban Plann. 104:310–319.
Schroll E, , Lambrinos JG, , Sandrock D. 2011. An evaluation of plant selections and irrigation requirements for extensive green roofs in the Pacific northwestern United States. HortTechnology. 21:314–22.
Sher AA, , Hyatt LA. 1999. The disturbed resource-flux invasion matrix: a new framework for patterns of plant invasion. Biol Invasions. 1:107–114.
Simmons MT, , Gardiner B, , Windhager S, , Tinsley J. 2008. Green roofs are not created equal: the hydrologic and thermal performance of six different extensive green roofs and reflective and non-reflective roofs in a sub-tropical climate. Urban Ecosyst. 11:339–348.
Smith M, , Palmer M. 2010. Restoring native plant and pollinator communities on New York City green roofs. Poster session presented at: MillionTreesNYC. Green Infrastructure and Urban Ecology: A Research Symposium; New York, NY.
Strauss L, , Simonson P2007. Washington State University Spokane Extension: Aggressive Invasive Plants [Internet]. Available from: http://spokane-county.wsu.edu/spokane/eastside/Fact%20Sheets/C162%20Vigorous%20Plants%2007.pdf
Sutherland S.2004. What makes a weed a weed: life history traits of native and exotic plants in the USA. Oecologia. 141:24–39.
Thompson K, , Hodgson JG, , Rich TC. 1995. Native and alien invasive plants: more of the same? Ecography. 18:390–402.
Tran S, , Lundholm J. 2013. Climatic effects on green roof plant growth. Paper Presented at: Cities Alive: 11th Annual Green Roof & Wall Conference. San Francisco, CA.
Van Mechelen C, , Dutoit T, , Kattge J, , Hermy M. 2014. Plant trait analysis delivers an extensive list of potential green roof species for Mediterranean France. Ecol Eng. 67:48–59.
Vilà M, , Espinar JL, , Hejda M, , Hulme PE, , Jarošík V, , Maron JL, , Pergl J, , Schaffner U, , Sun Y, , Pyšek P. 2011. Ecological impacts of invasive alien plants: a meta-analysis of their effects on species, communities and ecosystems. Ecol Lett. 14:702–708.
Weins J, , Graham CH. 2005. Niche conservatism: integrating evolution, ecology, and conservation biology. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst. 36:519–539.
Williams NSG, , Lundholm J, , MacIvor JS. 2014. Do green roofs help urban biodiversity conservation? J Appl Ecol. 51:1643–1649.
Williams NSG, , Rayner JP, , Raynor KJ. 2010. Green roofs for a wide brown land: opportunities and barriers for rooftop greening in Australia. Urban For Urban Greening. 9:245–251.
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. 2013. Invasive species [Internet]. Available from: http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/invasives/species.asp?catval = plants
Zhang H, , Lu S, , Wu J, , Jiang Y, , Lu Y, , Zhao H. 2014. Effect of substrate depth on 18 non-succulent herbaceous perennials for extensive green roofs in a region with a dry spring. Ecol Eng. 71:490–500.
All Time | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
---|---|---|---|
Abstract Views | 908 | 180 | 13 |
Full Text Views | 45 | 12 | 2 |
PDF Views & Downloads | 67 | 16 | 0 |
Green roofs can mitigate a number of urban environmental problems when green roof plant communities provide ecosystem services. However, this perspective may fail to address ecological aspects of the plant community. In particular, it does not account for the potential for green roofs to facilitate biological invasions. We consider current research in green roof ecology in light of the literature on biological invasions, focusing on plant invasion. We evaluate the role of species composition and novel communities, species interactions, succession, and dispersal on the trajectory of green roof plant communities. Green roofs have the potential to introduce invasive species through initial plantings, to become dominated by invasive species, and to spread invasive species, and we provide recommendations for plant selection and maintenance to reduce the risks of facilitating plant invasions to surrounding communities.
All Time | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
---|---|---|---|
Abstract Views | 908 | 180 | 13 |
Full Text Views | 45 | 12 | 2 |
PDF Views & Downloads | 67 | 16 | 0 |