Elizabeth F. Thompson, Justice Interrupted: The Struggle for Constitutional Government in the Middle East (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013). As Thompson demonstrates, Islamists who supported constitutions and constitutional governments were a diverse lot. Generally speaking, the ulema were distinct from the Islamists. In the late Ottoman context, however, upper-level ulema were considered part of the Islamist class (though they were not its sole constituent and the identification of a group of “Islamists” [islâmcılar] first occurred only in 1913); see İsmail Kara, İslâmcıların Siyasî Görüşleri: Hilafet ve Meşrutiyet, 2nd ed. (Istanbul: Dergâh Yayınları, 2001). Following the conventions of Turkish historiography, I use the terms ulema and Islamist interchangeably in this section.

 Elizabeth F. Thompson, Justice Interrupted: The Struggle for Constitutional Government in the Middle East (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013). As Thompson demonstrates, Islamists who supported constitutions and constitutional governments were a diverse lot. Generally speaking, the ulema were distinct from the Islamists. In the late Ottoman context, however, upper-level ulema were considered part of the Islamist class (though they were not its sole constituent and the identification of a group of “Islamists” [islâmcılar] first occurred only in 1913); see İsmail Kara, İslâmcıların Siyasî Görüşleri: Hilafet ve Meşrutiyet, 2nd ed. (Istanbul: Dergâh Yayınları, 2001). Following the conventions of Turkish historiography, I use the terms ulema and Islamist interchangeably in this section.)| false
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 Kara, İslâmcıların Siyasî Görüşleri, 55.

 Kara, İslâmcıların Siyasî Görüşleri, 55.)| false
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 Sohrabi, Revolution and Constitutionalism in the Ottoman Empire and Iran, 299–313; Hadi Enayat, Law, State, and Society in Modern Iran: Constitutionalism, Autocracy, and Legal Reform, 1906–1941 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 57–81; Janet Afary, The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906–1911 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 89–115; Mangol Bayat, Iran’s First Revolution: Shi‘ism and the Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1909 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Vanessa Martin, Islam and Modernism: The Iranian Revolution of 1906 (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1989).

 Sohrabi, Revolution and Constitutionalism in the Ottoman Empire and Iran, 299–313; Hadi Enayat, Law, State, and Society in Modern Iran: Constitutionalism, Autocracy, and Legal Reform, 1906–1941 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 57–81; Janet Afary, The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906–1911 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 89–115; Mangol Bayat, Iran’s First Revolution: Shi‘ism and the Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1909 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Vanessa Martin, Islam and Modernism: The Iranian Revolution of 1906 (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1989).)| false
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 Muhammad Qasim Zaman, The Ulama in Contemporary Islam: Custodians of Change (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002).

 Muhammad Qasim Zaman, The Ulama in Contemporary Islam: Custodians of Change (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002).)| false
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 Kara, İslâmcıların Siyasî Görüşleri, 122–27.

 Kara, İslâmcıların Siyasî Görüşleri, 122–27.)| false
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 Kara, İslâmcıların Siyasî Görüșleri, 183–84. On the linkage between the constitution and sharī‘a, see Ömer Ziyaeddin, Mir‘at-ı Kânûn-i Esâsî (Istanbul: Sâika Matbaası, 1324 [1908]).

 Kara, İslâmcıların Siyasî Görüșleri, 183–84. On the linkage between the constitution and sharī‘a, see Ömer Ziyaeddin, Mir‘at-ı Kânûn-i Esâsî (Istanbul: Sâika Matbaası, 1324 [1908]).)| false
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 Küçük Hamdi, “Makale-i Mühimme,” Beyânü’l-hak (hereinafter BH) I/18 (19 Kânûn-ı sâni 1324) [1 February 1909], 403. The İMC by-laws also make a linkage between the constitution and the Mecelle; Tarık Zafer Tunaya, Türkiye’de Siyasî Partiler, 1859–1952 (Istanbul: s.n., 1952), 271.

 Küçük Hamdi, “Makale-i Mühimme,” Beyânü’l-hak (hereinafter BH) I/18 (19 Kânûn-ı sâni 1324) [1 February 1909], 403. The İMC by-laws also make a linkage between the constitution and the Mecelle; Tarık Zafer Tunaya, Türkiye’de Siyasî Partiler, 1859–1952 (Istanbul: s.n., 1952), 271.)| false
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 Küçük Hamdi, “Vaaz,” BH I/1 (16 Ramazan 1326) [12 October 1908], 7.

 Küçük Hamdi, “Vaaz,” BH I/1 (16 Ramazan 1326) [12 October 1908], 7.)| false
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 Akșin, Șeriatçı Bir Ayaklanma, 242–47.

 Akșin, Șeriatçı Bir Ayaklanma, 242–47.)| false
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 Nathan J. Brown, “Shari‘a and State in the Modern Muslim Middle East,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 29 (1997): 369–73.

 Nathan J. Brown, “Shari‘a and State in the Modern Muslim Middle East,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 29 (1997): 369–73.)| false
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 Sohrabi, Revolution and Constitutionalism in the Ottoman Empire and Iran, 257–63.

 Sohrabi, Revolution and Constitutionalism in the Ottoman Empire and Iran, 257–63.)| false
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  Sohrabi, Revolution and Constitutionalism in the Ottoman Empire and Iran, 263–67.

  Sohrabi, Revolution and Constitutionalism in the Ottoman Empire and Iran, 263–67. )| false
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 Kücük Hamdi, “İslâmiyet ve hilafet ve meșihat-ı İslâmiye,” BH, 1/22 (8 Safer 1327) [1 March 1909], 513. On the traditional view that the ruler is the representative and agent of the community, see Patricia Crone, God’s Rule: Government and Islam (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), 277.

 Kücük Hamdi, “İslâmiyet ve hilafet ve meșihat-ı İslâmiye,” BH, 1/22 (8 Safer 1327) [1 March 1909], 513. On the traditional view that the ruler is the representative and agent of the community, see Patricia Crone, God’s Rule: Government and Islam (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), 277.)| false
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 Jun Akiba, “From Kadi to Naib: Reorganization of the Ottoman Sharī‘a Judiciary in the Tanzimat Period,” in Frontiers of Ottoman Studies: State, Province, and the West, vol. 1, eds. Colin Imber and Keiko Kiyotaki (London: I.B. Tauris, 2005), 43–60.

 Jun Akiba, “From Kadi to Naib: Reorganization of the Ottoman Sharī‘a Judiciary in the Tanzimat Period,” in Frontiers of Ottoman Studies: State, Province, and the West, vol. 1, eds. Colin Imber and Keiko Kiyotaki (London: I.B. Tauris, 2005), 43–60.)| false
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 Küçük Hamdi, “Mecelle-i Ahkam-ı Adliyemize Reva Görülen Muahize Müdaafa” BH II/48 (8 Şubat 1325) [21 February 1910], 1024–1026; BH II/49 (15 Şubat 1325) [28 February 1910], 1035–1038; BH II/50 (22 Şubat 1325) [7 March 1910], 1051–1054; BH II/51 (1 Mart 1326) [14 March 1910], 1067–1070; BH II/53 (15 Mart 1326) [28 March 1910], 1100–1102; BH II/54 (22 Mart 1326) [4 April 1910], 1114–1116; BH II/55 (29 Mart 1326) [11 April 1910], 1130–1132; BH III/59 (26 Nisan 1326) [9 May 1910], 1194–1197; and BH III/61(10 Mayıs 1326) [23 May 1910], 1226–1228.

 Küçük Hamdi, “Mecelle-i Ahkam-ı Adliyemize Reva Görülen Muahize Müdaafa” BH II/48 (8 Şubat 1325) [21 February 1910], 1024–1026; BH II/49 (15 Şubat 1325) [28 February 1910], 1035–1038; BH II/50 (22 Şubat 1325) [7 March 1910], 1051–1054; BH II/51 (1 Mart 1326) [14 March 1910], 1067–1070; BH II/53 (15 Mart 1326) [28 March 1910], 1100–1102; BH II/54 (22 Mart 1326) [4 April 1910], 1114–1116; BH II/55 (29 Mart 1326) [11 April 1910], 1130–1132; BH III/59 (26 Nisan 1326) [9 May 1910], 1194–1197; and BH III/61(10 Mayıs 1326) [23 May 1910], 1226–1228.)| false
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 Léon Ostrorog, “Turkey,” in The Brittanica Year-book, 1913: A Survey of the World’s Progress Since the Completion in 1910 of the Encyclopaedia Britannica Eleventh Edition, ed. Hugh Chisholm (London: The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company, 1913), 1157.

 Léon Ostrorog, “Turkey,” in The Brittanica Year-book, 1913: A Survey of the World’s Progress Since the Completion in 1910 of the Encyclopaedia Britannica Eleventh Edition, ed. Hugh Chisholm (London: The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company, 1913), 1157.)| false
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