The Fairness ‘Dilemma’ in Sharing the Nile Waters: What Lessons from the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam for International Law?
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This monograph enquires into the fairness dilemma in connection with the construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (gerd) in light of relevant colonial-era Nile treaties, post-1990 Nile framework instruments, and international watercourses law. The gerd is now a fait accompli, but fairness considerations will continue to be vital issues in its completion, filling, and operation. The monograph argues that the gerd is a symbol of a fair share of the Nile waters by Ethiopia, the realization of which depends on, inter alia, an appropriate economic return, benefit sharing and prevention of significant impacts. The monograph also calls for a process to address the issue of unfair agreements, and argues that, although fairness application can be complex, the notions of procedural fairness and distributive justice can be applied to define and delineate the principle with reference to a specific treaty regime.
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S. Salman, ‘The Ethiopian Renaissance Dam: Opportunities & Challenges,’ Sudanow Magazine (20 September 2013), retrieved from http://sudanow.info.sd/the-ethiopian-renaissance-dam-opportunities-challenges/.
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M. B. Kelley & R. Johnson, ‘STRATFOR: Egypt is Prepared to Bomb All of Ethiopia’’s Nile Dams,’ Business Insider (13 October 2012), retrieved from http://www.businessinsider.com/hacked-stratfor-emails-egypt-could-take-military-action-to-protect-its-stake-in-the-nile-2012-10#ixzz3afm498Zg.
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D. Berhane, ‘’Ethiopia’ Dismisses International Rivers as Egypt’s Proxy,’ Horn Affairs English (11 April 2014), retrieved from http://hornaffairs.com/en/2014/04/11/ethiopia-dismisses-international-rivers-as-egypts-proxy-full-text-included/
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15
S. Salman, ‘The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam: The Road to the Declaration of Principles and the Khartoum Document,’ Water International Vol. 41(4) (2016), pp. 512–527, p. 512.
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16
Ibid., p. 523.
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18
See, ‘Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan Sign Final Contracts on Nile Dam Studies,’ Ahramonline (20 September 2016), retrieved from http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/244290.aspx.
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20
Y. Zhang, S. Erkyihum & P. Block, ‘Filling the GERD: Evaluating Hydroclimatic Variability and Impoundment Strategies for Blue Nile Riparian Countries,’ Water International Vol. 41(4) (2016), pp. 593–610, p. 594. These hydrologists predict that filling of the gerd ‘is likely to begin as early as 2018.
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21
Salman, supra note 15, p. 524.
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22
E. Boh, ‘Ethiopia Accuses Egypt of “‘Fueling’” Violence,’ Africanews (10 October 2016), retrieved from http://www.africanews.com/2016/10/10/ethiopia-accuses-egypt-of-fueling-violence/.
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A. Zaher, ‘Egypt-Ethiopia Tension Set to Rise,’ The Arab Weekly, Issue 78 (23 October 2016), p. 9.
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28
T. Franck, Fairness in International Law and Institutions (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995).
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J. A. Rawls, ‘Justice as Fairness,’ The Philosophical Review, Vol. 67(2) (1958), pp. 164–194.
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Franck, supra note 28, pp. 7–8 and 25.
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31
Ibid., pp. 8–9.
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32
Ibid., pp. 8–15. Franck underlined the need for an agreement on ‘a core of reciprocally applicable rules’ (p. 12). ‘Moderate scarcity’ refers to ‘a finite, non-renewable,’ particularly something in ‘short global supply’ (p. 9). ‘Community’ is ‘a social system of continuing interaction and transaction. It is only in a community that the bedrock of shared values and developed principles necessary to any assessment of fairness is found.’ (pp. 9–10).
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33
Ibid., pp. 16–18.
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34
Ibid., p. 14.
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35
J. Tasioulas, ‘International Law and the Limits of Fairness,’ European Journal of International Law, Vol. 13(4) (2002), pp. 993–1023; I. Scobbie, ‘Tom Franck’s Fairness,’ European Journal of International Law, Vol. 13(4) (2002), pp. 909–925.
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36
D. Kritsiotis, ‘Imagining the International Community,’ European Journal of International Law, Vol. 13(4) (2002), pp. 961–992, p. 968; D. Shelton, ‘Equity’,’ in, D. Bodansky, J. Brunnée & E. Hey (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of International Environmental Law, pp. 640–661 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 645–649.
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38
Ibid., p. 260.
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Shelton, supra note 36, p. 640.
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J. B. Moyle, The Institutes of Justinian, 5th ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1913), bk I, title 1, retrieved from http://droitromain.upmf-grenoble.fr/Anglica/just1_Moyle.htm.
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R. S. Ratner, The Thin Justice of International Law: A Moral Reckoning of the Law of Nations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), p. 44. Italics in the original.
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44
M. Akehurst, ‘Equity and General Principles of Law,’ International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol. 25(4) (1976), pp. 801–825, pp. 801–802; O. McIntyre, ‘Utilization of Shared International Freshwater Resources: The Meaning and Role of “Equity” in International Water Law,’ Water International, Vol. 38(2) (2013), pp. 112–129, pp. 114–117.
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45
R. Jennings, ‘Equity and Equidistance Principles,’ Annuaire Suisse de Droit International, Vol. 27 (1986), pp. 31–35, pp. 27 & 31.
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V. Lowe, ‘The Role of Equity in International Law,’ Australian Yearbook of International Law, Vol. 12 (1988–89), pp. 54–81, p. 54; Akehurst, supra note 44.
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Ratner, supra note 43.
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M. Prost& A. T. Camprudi, ‘Against Fairness? International Environmental Law, Disciplinary Bias and Pareto Justice,’ Leiden Journal of International Law, Vol. 25(2) (2012), pp. 379–396, p. 379.
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52
Ibid., p. 164.
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M. Maiese, ‘Principles of Justice and Fairness,’ in, G. Burgess & H. Burgess (eds.), Beyond Intractability (Boulder: Conflict Information Consortium, University of Colorado, 2003), retrieved from http://www.beyondintractability.org/print/2373.
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R. Wolfrum, ‘Commentary on Purposes and Principles (Art 1),’ in, B. Simma et al., The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary, 3rd ed., Volume 1, pp. 113–114 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), pp. 113–114; Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Case, supra note 49, para. 71; Case Concerning the Gabčikovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary v Slovakia), Judgement of 25 September 1997, [1997] icj Reports 7, para. 147; Z. Yihdego & A. Rieu-Clarke, ‘An Exploration of Fairness in International Law Through the Blue Nile and GERD,’ Water International, Vol. 41(4) (2016), pp. 528–549.
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61
Franck, supra note 28, pp. 79–80.
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62
Ibid., pp. 47–79.
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63
Ibid., pp. 56–75; Lowe, I note 48, pp. 54–58; O. McIntyre, Environmental Protection of International Watercourses under International Law (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007), p. 120.
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Franck, supra note 28, pp. 65–66.
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Franck, supra note 28, pp. 74–75.
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71
Salman, supra note 69.
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73
S. McCaffrey, The Law of International Watercourses, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 387–463; Magsig, supra note 67.
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Salman, supra note 69, p. 10.
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J. W. Dellapenna, ‘The Customary International Law of Transboundary Fresh Waters,’ International Journal of Global Environmental Issues, Vol. 1 (3–4) (2001), pp. 264–305, p. 287.
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Salman, supra note 70, p. 354.
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McCaffrey, supra note 73, pp. 464–481.
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Z. Yihdego, ‘Arms Control and Human Security: What Role for NSAs?,’ in, C. Ryngaert & M. Noortmann, Human Security and International Law: The Challenge of Non-State Actors, pp. 135–174 (Cambridge: Intersentia, 2014).
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117
Salman, supra note 92, pp. 17–29.
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S. O. McKenzie, ‘Egypt’s Choice: From the Nile Basin Treaty to the Cooperative Framework Agreement, an International Legal Analysis,’ Transnational Law & Contemporary Problems, Vol. 21 (2012), pp. 571–599, p. 571ff, retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2445962.
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Salman, supra note 92, p. 21.
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M. Kimenyi & J. Mbaku, Governing the Nile River Basin: The Search for a New Legal Regime (Arlington: Brookings Institution Press, 2015), pp. 83–89.
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124
M. A. Shetewy, ‘Legal Commitments Regulating the Establishment of Water Projects on International Rivers Application Study over the Nile Basin,’ African Perspectives, Vol. 11(39) (2013), pp. 29–35.
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125
Ibid., pp. 34–35.
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126
McCaffrey, supra note 73, p. 266.
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127
M. Shaw, ‘The Heritage of States: The Principle of uti possidetis juris Today,’ British Yearbook of International Law, Vol. 67(1) (1996), pp. 75–154, pp. 97 & 104.
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128
T. W. Woldetsadik, International Watercourses Law in the Nile River Basin: Three States at a Crossroads (Abingdon: Routledge, 2013), p. 100; A. H. Garretson, ‘The Nile Basin,’ in, A. H. Garretson, R. D. Hayton & C. J. Olmstead (eds.), The Law of International Drainage Basins, pp. 256–297 (New York: Oceana, 1967), p. 277.
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129
Shaw, supra note 127, p. 77.
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133
Ibid., p. 136, para. 10.
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134
S. Ratner, ‘Drawing a Better Line: UTI Possidetis and the Borders of New States,’ American Journal of International Law, Vol. 90(4) (1996), pp. 590–624, p. 602.
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135
P. L. O. Lumumba, ‘The Interpretation of the 1929 Treaty and its Legal Relevance and Implications for the Stability of the Region,’ African Sociological Review, 11(1) (2007), pp. 10–24, pp. 7–18.
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138
Egyptian Perspective, supra note 5.
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140
A. Salama, ‘The Principle of Fundamental Change in Circumstances and its Impact on the Nile Basin Agreements,’ African Perspectives, Vol. 11(39) (2013), pp. 36–40.
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141
Woldetsadik, supra note 128, p. 116.
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142
T. Tvedt, The River Nile in the Post-colonial Age: Conflict and Cooperation in the Nile Basin Countries (London: I. B. Tauris & Co, 2009), p. 10; McCaffrey, supra note 74, pp. 271–271.
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Tvedt, supra note 142, pp. 10–11.
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A. Eleiba, ‘Sudanese President Backs Ethiopian Dam Ahead of Nile Talks,’ Ahramonline (5 December 2013), retrieved from http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/88321.aspx.
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149
Ibid., p. 55 (footnotes omitted). The ilc did also clarify that ‘[b]y excepting treaties establishing a boundary from its [Article 62] scope the present article would not exclude the operation of the principle of self-determination in any case where the conditions for its legitimate operation existed’ (ibid, p. 58).
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McCaffrey, supra note 73, p. 269; G. T. Degefu, The Nile: Historical, Legal and Developmental Perspectives (New York: Trafford Publishing, 2003), p. 99.
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R. K. Paisley & T. W. Henshaw, ‘Transboundary Governance of the Nile River Basin: Past, Present and Future,’ Environmental Development, Vol. 7 (July 2013), pp. 59–71, pp. 59 & 63.
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McCaffrey, supra note 73, p. 270.
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Franck, supra note 28, p. 13.
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M. S. Aal, ‘Equitable and Reasonable Utilization of International Rivers in the UN Convention with a Particular Reference to the River Nile,’ African Perspectives, Vol. 11(39) (2013), pp. 22–28, p. 27.
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A. Abulwafa, ‘Commitment of International Conventions on the River Nile,’ African Perspectives, Vol. 11(39) (2013), pp. 7–13.
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M. C. R. Craven, ‘The Problem of State Succession and the Identity of States under International Law,’ European Journal of International Law, Vol. 9 (1998), pp. 142–162, p. 147.
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T. Maluwa, International Law in Post-Colonial Africa (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 1999), p. 69; C. Leb & M. Tignino, ‘State Succession to Water Treaties: Uncertainties and Extremes,’ in, L. B. Boisson de Chazournes, C. Leb & M. Tignino (eds.), International Law and Freshwater: The Multiple Challenges, pp. 421–444 (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2013), p. 425.
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162
McCaffrey, supra note 73, p. 270.
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163
As quoted in Mekonnen, supra note 115, p. 434.
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Degefu, supra note 151, p. 99.
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McCaffrey, supra note 73, p. 269.
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Salman, supra note 92.
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167
Ratner, supra note 134, p. 600; Hungary v Slovakia, supra note 55.
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E.g., Aal, supra note 156, p. 27.
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A. Boyle & C. Chinkin, The Making of International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 28–29.
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A. H. Garretson, ‘The Nile River System,’ Proceedings of the American Society of International Law, Vol. 54 (1960), pp. 136–163, p. 143.
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A. Hashim, ‘The Egyptian Military, Part Two: From Mubarak Onward,’ Middle East Policy, Vol. 18(4) (Winter 2011).
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181
J. Brunnée & S. J. Toope, ‘The Changing Nile Basin Regime: Does Law Matter?,’ Harvard International Law Journal, Vol. 43(1) (2002), pp. 105–159, pp. 108–109.
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182
Ibid., p. 110.
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184
M. Abdo, ‘The Nile Question: The Accords on the Water of the Nile and Their Implications on Cooperative Schemes in the Basin,’ Perceptions–Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 9(2) (Summer 2004), pp. 45–57, retrieved from http://sam.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/4.-Mohammed-Abdo.pdf.
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185
Ibid., p. 51.
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Shetewy, supra note 124, p. 35.
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E. Martens, ‘Article 102,’ in, B. Simma et al, The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary, 3rd ed., Volume 2, pp. 2098–2109 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 2109.
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196
D. B. Hollis, The Oxford Guide to Treaties Edited by Bibliographic Information (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 32.
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197
K. Hossain, ‘The Environmental Law-Making Process,’ in, S. Alam et al, Routledge Handbook of International Environmental Law, pp. 61–76 (Abingdon: Routledge, 2013), p. 70. Arguably, however, the ‘adoption, application, modification, interpretation and termination of treaties are, in principle, applicable to framework agreements and their protocols’ as per N. Matz-Lück, ‘Framework Conventions as a Regulatory Tool,’ Goettingen Journal of International Law, Vol. 1(3) (2009), pp. 439–458, p. 442. It ought to be noted that the author appears to use the phrase ‘framework convention’ as synonymous to a ‘framework agreement.’
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198
G. Ulfstein, ‘Reweaving the Fabric of International Law? Patters of Consent in Environmental Framework Agreements,’ in, R. Wolfrum & V. Roben (eds.), Developments of International Law in Treaty Making, pp. 145–154 (Heidelberg: Springer, 2005), pp. 145–148.
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199
Boyle & Chinkin, supra note 169, pp. 211–214; G. J. H. Van Hoof, Rethinking the Sources of International Law (Berlin: Kluwer, 1983), pp. 187–189.
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207
S. Salman, ‘Dams, International Rivers, and Riparian States: An Analysis of the Recommendations of the World Commission on Dams,’ American University International Law Review, Vol. 16(6) (2001), pp. 1477–1505. See pp. 1487–1503. For further discussion on human health and safety issues in the context of the primacy of the rule of significant harm, see Dellapenna, supra note 76, p. 283.
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McCaffrey, supra note 73, p. 511.
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J. A. Allan & N. Mirumachi, ‘Why Negotiate? Asymmetric Endowments, Asymmetric Power and the Invisible Nexus of Water, Trade and Power That Bring Apparent Water Security,’ in, A. Earle, A. Jägerskog & J. Őjendal, Transboundary Water Management: Principles and Practice, pp. 13–26 (London: Earthscan, 2010), p. 22.
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DoPs, supra note 12.
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Hollis, supra note 196, p. 20.
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A. Aman, ‘Egypt Warily Signs Preliminary Nile Agreement,’ Al-monitor (31 March 2015), retrieved from http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/03/egypt-eastern-nile-water-agreement-ethiopia-sudan.html#.
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Waldoc, Sir H., ‘First Report on the Law of Treaties,’ in, Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1962, Vol. II, pp. 27–80 (New York: United Nations, 1964), p. 32, retrieved from http://legal.un.org/ilc/publications/yearbooks/english/ilc_1962_v2.pdf.
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J. Klabbers, ‘Beyond the Vienna Convention: Conflicting Treaty Provisions,’ in, E. Cannizzaro (ed.), The Law of Treaties Beyond the Vienna Convention, pp. 192–205 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 197.
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See, ‘Ethiopia Won’t Stop Construction of the Renaissance Dam: Minister,’ Sudan Tribune (13 February 2016), retrieved from http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article57997.
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Salman, supra note 15, p. 524.
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Shetewy, supra note 124, p. 35.
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247
P. Wouters, International Water Law: Selected Writings of Professor Charles B. Bourne (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 1997), p. 182. The icj in the Pulp Mills case (supra note 46) states that ‘the obligation to inform CARU [Adminstrative Commission of the River Uruguay, a body established by a treaty] allows for the initiation of co-operation between the Parties which is necessary in order to fulfil the obligation of prevention’ (para. 102).
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Salman, supra note 92, p. 22.
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N. Wahish, ‘Toshka Turns Millennial Green,’ Al-Ahram Weekly On-line, Issue No. 392 (27 August–2 September 1998), retrieved from http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/archive/1998/392/ec1.htm.
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Woldetsadik, supra note 128, pp. 44–45; A. E. Cascão, ‘Changing Power Relations in the Nile River Basin: Unilateralism vs. Cooperation?,’ Water Alternatives, Vol. 2(2) (2009), pp. 245–268, p. 249.
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A. Rieu-Clarke, ‘Notification and Consultation on Planned Measures Concerning International Watercourses: Learning from the Pulp Mills and Kishenganga Cases,’ Yearbook of International Environmental Law, Vol. 24(1) (2014), pp. 102–130.
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H. Lauterpacht, The Function of Law in the International Community (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 306–307.
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Wouters, supra note 247, p. 76.
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C. Gray, ‘The Use of Force and the International Legal Order,’ in, M. D. Evans (ed.), International Law, 3rd ed., pp. 615–647 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 618–619.
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N. Ali, ‘Ethiopia Accuses Egypt of Destabilizing the Country by Supporting Rebels,’ Middle East Observer (11 October 2016).
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See, ‘Egypt’s Sisi denies supporting opposition in Ethiopia,’ Reuters (13 October 2016).
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See, World Commission on Dams, Dams and Development—A New Framework for Decision-making (London: Earthscan, 2000), p. 167.
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IPoE Report, supra note 237, pp. 14–39.
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273
Ibid., p. 34.
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274
Ibid., p. 29.
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276
Y. Tadele, ‘EEPCo, Chinese Company Ink Billion Dollar Transmission Line Deal,’ Fortune, Vol. 13(678) (28 April 2013).
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280
A. E. Cascão & A. Nicol, ‘GERD: New Norms of Cooperation in the Nile Basin?,’ Water International, Vol. 41(4) (2016), pp. 559–560.
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281
IPoE Report, supra note 237, p. 1.
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284
See, ‘Egypt Forced to Negotiate on Nile Dam,’ Stratfor (20 March 2015), retrieved from https://www.stratfor.com/sample/analysis/egypt-forced-negotiate-nile-dam; H. Verhoeven, ‘Africa’s Next Hegemon: Behind Ethiopia’s Power Plays,’ Foreign Affairs (12 April 2015), retrieved from https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/ethiopia/2015-04-12/africas-next-hegemon; S. Farid, ‘Will Egypt Still Get Its Fair Share of Nile Water?.’ Al Arabiya News (31 March 2015), retrieved from http://english.alarabiya.net/en/perspective/analysis/2015/03/31/Will-Egypt-still-get-its-fair-share-of-Nile-water-.html.
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286
A. Aman, ‘In Switch, Egypt May Join Ethiopia in Nile Dam Project,’ Al-monitor (21 October 2013), retrieved from http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/10/egypt-ethiopia-dam-reconciliation.html#ixzz4UK9hCjUq.
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289
R. Tawfik, ‘The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam: A Benefit-sharing Project in the Eastern Nile?,’ Water International, Vol. 41(4) (2016), pp. 574–592.
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292
Ibid., pp. 39–40; see also Pulp Mills, supra note 46, paras. 203–219.
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296
World Commission of Dams, supra note 270, p. 267.
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301
Whittington et al, supra note 262, pp. 596 600; mit Report, supra note 10.
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302
Franck, supra note 28, p. 56.
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303
See, ‘Al-Sisi Criticised for Waiving Egypt’s Right Over Nile Water,’ Middle Eastern Monitor (23 March 2015), retrieved from https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/news/africa/17657.
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305
See, H. Afifi, ‘Egyptian Experts Divided Over Renaissance Dam Declaration of Principles,’ Ahramonline (24 March 2015), retrieved from http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/126005.aspx.
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309
See, ‘A Dam Nuisance: Egypt and Ethiopia Quarrel Over Water,’ The Economist (20 April 2011), retrieved from http://www.economist.com/node/18587195.
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310
A. Maasho, ‘INSIGHT-Paying for Giant Nile Dam Itself, Ethiopia Thwarts Egypt but Takes Risks,’ Reuters (23 April 2014), retrieved from http://www.reuters.com/article/ethiopia-energy-idUSL6N0N91QM20140423#0yFaPZTMs1UPhfBG.97.
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311
Woldetsadik, supra note 128, p. 41.
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315
Ibid., p. 6.
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316
Ibid., p. 4.
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317
Ibid., p. 5.
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321
Zhang et al, supra note 20, pp. 593–610.
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322
Wheeler et al, supra 295, p. 630.
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324
Zhang et al, supra note 20, p. 608.
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326
Ibid., pp. 600–601.
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327
Wheeler et al, supra note 295, pp. 611–634.
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328
Ibid., pp. 630–631. Clarification added.
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333
‘See, ‘Egypt Stresses Nile Water Rights in Ethiopia Dam Project,’ Daily Mail (25 March 2015), retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/wires/afp/article-3011635/Egypt-stresses-Nile-water-rights-Ethiopia-dam-project.html.
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335
H. I. Abdel-Shafy & R. O. Aly, ‘Water Issue in Egypt: Resources, Pollution and Protection Endeavours,’ Central European Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Vol. 8(1) (2002), pp. 3–21, retrieved from http://www.omfi.hu/cejoem/Volume8/Vol8No1/CE02_1-01.html; G. G. E. Eckstein, Hydrologic Reality: International Water Law and Transboundary Ground-Water Resources, paper and lecture for the conference on ‘Water: Dispute Prevention and Development’ (American University Centre for the Global South, Washington, D.C., 12–13 October 1998).
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338
S. Salman, ‘How and Why Has the Ethiopian Strategy on the Renaissance Dam Succeeded?,’ Sudan Vision (25 May 2015), retrieved from http://news.sudanvisiondaily.com/details.html?rsnpid=248051.
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346
Franck, supra note 28, p. 13.
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347
C. W. Sadoff & D. Grey, ‘Beyond the River: The Benefits of Cooperation on International Rivers,’ Water Policy, Vol. 4 (2002), pp. 389–403.
-
350
See, e.g., Aal, supra note 156, pp. 28–29.
-
352
Franck, supra note 28, p. 7.
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The Fairness ‘Dilemma’ in Sharing the Nile Waters: What Lessons from the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam for International Law?
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This monograph enquires into the fairness dilemma in connection with the construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (gerd) in light of relevant colonial-era Nile treaties, post-1990 Nile framework instruments, and international watercourses law. The gerd is now a fait accompli, but fairness considerations will continue to be vital issues in its completion, filling, and operation. The monograph argues that the gerd is a symbol of a fair share of the Nile waters by Ethiopia, the realization of which depends on, inter alia, an appropriate economic return, benefit sharing and prevention of significant impacts. The monograph also calls for a process to address the issue of unfair agreements, and argues that, although fairness application can be complex, the notions of procedural fairness and distributive justice can be applied to define and delineate the principle with reference to a specific treaty regime.
| All Time | Past 365 days | Past 30 Days | |
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