Are People More Disturbed by Dog or Human Suffering?
Influence of Victim’s Species and Age
In: Society & AnimalsSearch for other papers by Jack Levin in
Current site
Google Scholar
Search for other papers by Arnold Arluke in
Current site
Google Scholar
Search for other papers by Leslie Irvine in
Current site
Google Scholar
This research examines whether people are more emotionally disturbed by reports of non-human animal than human suffering or abuse. Two hundred and fifty-six undergraduates at a major northeastern university were asked to indicate their degree of empathy for a brutally beaten human adult or child versus an adult dog or puppy, as described in a fictitious news report. We hypothesized that the vulnerability of victims—determined by their age and not species—would determine participants’ levels of distress and concern for them. The main effect for age but not for species was significant. We also found more empathy for victims who are human children, puppies, and fully-grown dogs than for victims who are adult humans. Age makes a difference for empathy toward human victims, but not for dog victims. In addition, female participants were significantly more empathic toward all victims than were their male counterparts.
Purchase
Buy instant access (PDF download and unlimited online access):
Institutional Login
Log in with Open Athens, Shibboleth, or your institutional credentials
Personal login
Log in with your brill.com account
-
Angantyr M., Jakob E. & Hansen E. A comparison of empathy for humans and empathy for animals Anthrozoös 2011 24 4 369 377
-
Archer J. Why do people love their pets? Evolution and Human Behavior 1997 18 4 237 259
-
Arluke A. & Sanders C. Regarding animals 1996 Philadelphia Temple University Press
-
Arluke A. & Sax B. Understanding Nazi animal protection and the Holocaust Anthrozoös 1992 5 1 6 31
-
Ascione F. R. Enhancing children’s attitudes about the humane treatment of animals: Generalization to human-directed empathy Anthrozoös 1992 5 3 176 191
-
Ashley E. P., Kosloski A. & Petrie S. A. Incidence of intentional vehicle—reptile collisions Human Dimensions of Wildlife 2007 12 3 137 143
-
Batson C. D. The altruism question: Toward a social psychological answer 1991 Hillsdale, NJ Erlbaum
-
Batson C. D., Batson J. G., Griffitt C. A., Barrientos S., Brandt J., Randall S. P. & Bayly M. J. Negative-state relief and the empathy—altruism hypothesis Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1989 56 6 922 933
-
Batson C. D., Bolen M. H., Cross J. A. & Neuringer-Benefiel H. E. Where is the altruism in the altruistic personality? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1986 50 1 212 220
-
Batson C. D., Duncan B. D., Ackerman P., Buckley T. & Birch K. Is empathic emotion a source of altruistic motivation? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1981 40 2 290 302
-
Batson C. D., Dyck J. L., Brandt J. R., Batson J. G., Powell A. L., McMaster M. R. & Griffitt C. Five studies testing two new egoistic alternatives to the empathy-altruism hypothesis Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1988 55 1 52 77
-
Batson C. D., Eklund J., Chermok V., Hoyt J. & Biaggio O. An additional antecedent of empathic concern: Valuing the welfare of the person in need Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2007 93 1 65 74
-
Batson C. D., Lishner D. A., Cook J. & Sawyer S. Similarity and nurturance: Two possible sources of empathy for strangers Basic and Applied Social Psychology 2005 27 1 15 25
-
Batson C. D., O’Quin K., Fultz J., Vanderplas M. & Isen A. M. Influence of self-reported distress and empathy on egoistic versus altruistic motivation to help Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1983 45 3 706 718
-
Batson C. D., Polycarpou M. P., Harmon-Jones E., Imhoff H. J., Mitchener E. C., Bednar L. L., Klein T. R. & Highberger L. Empathy and attitudes: Can feeling for a member of a stigmatized group improve feelings toward the group? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1997 72 1 105 118
-
Batson C. D., Turk C. L., Shaw L. L. & Klein T. R. Information function of empathic emotion: Learning that we value the other’s welfare Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1995 68 2 300 313
-
Blaikie P., Cannon T., Davis I. & Wisner B. At risk: Natural hazards, people’s vulnerability, and disasters 1994 London Routledge
-
Blouin D. Are dogs children, companions, or just animals: Understanding variations in people’s orientations toward animals Anthrozoös 2013 26 2 279 294
-
Bochner A. P. Vulnerable medicine Journal of Applied Communication Research 2009 37 2 159 166
-
Bonas S., McNicholas J. & Collis G. M. Podberscek A. L., Paul E. S. & Serpell J. A. Pets in the network of family relationships: An empirical study Companion animals and us: Exploring the relationships between people and pets 2000 New York Cambridge University Press 209 236
-
Budge C. R., Spicer J., Jones B. R. & George R. St. The influence of companion animals on owner perception: Gender and species effects Anthrozoös 1996 9 1 10 18
-
Daly B. & Morton L. L. Children with pets do not show higher empathy: A challenge to current views Anthrozoös 2003 16 4 298 314
-
Daly B., Taylor N. & Signal T. Pups and babes: Quantifying sources of difference in emotional and behavioral reactions to accounts of human and animal abuse Anthrozoös 2014 27 2 205 217
-
Davis M. H. Stets J. & Turner J. Empathy Handbook of the sociology of emotions 2006 New York Springer US 443 466
-
Dijker A. J. The influence of perceived suffering and vulnerability on the experience of pity European Journal of Social Psychology 2001 31 6 659 676
-
Dijker A. J. Perceived vulnerability as a common basis of moral emotions British Journal of Social Psychology 2010 49 2 415 423
-
Dijker A. J. A theory of vulnerability-based morality Emotion Review 2014 6 2 175 183
-
Eisenberg N. Empathy and sympathy: A brief review of the concepts and empirical literature Anthrozoös 1988 2 1 15 17
-
Eisenberg N., Fabes R. A., Bernzweig J., Karbon M., Poulin R. & Hanish L. The relations of emotionality and regulation to preschoolers’ social skills and sociometric status Child Development 1993 64 5 1418 1438
-
Ellingsen K., Zanella A. J., Bjerkås E. & Indrebø A. The relationship between empathy, perception of pain and attitudes toward pets among Norwegian dog owners Anthrozoös 2010 23 3 231 243
-
Filippi M., Riccitelli G., Falini A., Di Salle F. & Vuilleumier P. The brain functional networks associated to human and animal suffering differ among omnivores, vegetarians and vegans PLoS ONE 2010 5 5 e10847 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010847
-
Franklin R. G., Nelson A. J. & Barker M. Neural responses to perceiving suffering in humans and animals Social Neuroscience 2013 8 3 217 227
-
Fultz J., Batson C. D., Fortenbach V. A., Patricia M. V. & Laurel L. Social evaluation and the empathy–altruism hypothesis Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1986 50 4 761 769
-
Gage M. & Holcomb R. Couples’ perception of stressfulness of death of the family pet Family Relations 1991 40 1 103 105
-
Gerwolls M. & Labott S. Adjustment to the death of a companion animal Anthrozoös 1994 7 3 172 187
-
Greenebaum J. It’s a dog’s life: Elevating status from pet to “fur baby” at Yappy Hour Society & Animals 2004 12 2 117 135
-
Herzog H. A. Gender differences in human–animal interactions: A review Anthrozoös 2007 20 1 7 21
-
Herzog H. A. Some we love, some we hate, some we eat 2011 New York Harper Perennial
-
Herzog H. A. & Burghardt G. Attitudes toward animals: Origins and diversity Anthrozoös 1988 1 4 214 222
-
Herzog H. A., Betchart N. & Pittman R. Sex role identity and attitudes toward animals Anthrozoös 1991 4 3 184 192
-
Hoffmaster B. What does vulnerability mean? Hastings Center Report 2006 36 2 38 45
-
Holloway I. & Freshwater D. Vulnerable story telling: Narrative research in nursing Journal of Research in Nursing 2007 12 6 703 711
-
Irvine L. Filling the ark: Animal welfare in disasters 2010 Philadelphia Temple University Press
-
Krebs D. L. Empathy and altruism Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1975 32 6 1134 1146
-
Lambert V. Why do people donate to dog charities when children are dying? The Telegraph 2015 Accessed 2/26/15 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/lifestyle/11408327/Why-do-people-donate-to-dog-charities-when-children-are-dying.html
-
Laner M., Benin M. & Ventrone N. Bystander attitudes toward victims of violence: Who’s worth helping? Deviant Behavior 2001 22 1 23 42
-
Lehmann V., Huis E. M. & Vingerhoets A. J. J. M. The human and animal baby schema effect: Correlates of individual differences Behavioural Processes 2013 March 94 99 108
-
Lishner D. A., Batson C. D. & Huss E. Tenderness and sympathy: Distinct empathic emotions elicited by different forms of need Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2011 37 5 614 625
-
Lishner D. A., Oceja L. V., Stocks E. L. & Zaspel K. The effect of infant-like characteristics on empathic concern for adults in need Motivation and Emotion 2008 32 4 270 277
-
Lorenz K. Studies in animal and human behavior 1971 Vol. 2 Cambridge Harvard University Press
-
Matthews S. & Herzog H. Personality and attitudes toward the treatment of animals Society & Animals 1997 5 2 57 63
-
McDougal W. Introduction to social psychology 1908 London Methuen
-
Meyer I., Forkman B. & Paul E. S. Factors affecting the human interpretation of dog behavior Anthrozoös 2014 27 1 127 140
-
Midlarsky E. & Hannah M. Competence, reticence, and helping by children and adolescents Developmental Psychology 1985 21 3 534 541
-
Monaghan R. Terrorism in the name of animal rights Terrorism and Political Violence 1999 11 4 159 169
-
Paul E. S. Us and them: Scientists’ and animal rights campaigners’ views of the animal experimentation debate Society & Animals 1995 3 4 1 22
-
Paul E. S. Empathy with animals and with humans: Are they linked? Anthrozoös 2000 13 4 194 202
-
Paul E. S. & Serpell J. A. Childhood pet keeping and humane attitudes in young adulthood Animal Welfare 1993 2 4 321 337
-
Perrine R. & Wells M. Labradors to Persians: Perceptions of pets in the workplace Anthrozoös 2006 19 1 65 78
-
Phillips C. J. C., Izmirli S., Aldavood S. J., Alonso M., Choe B., Hanlon A. & Rehn T. An international comparison of female and male students’ attitudes to the use of animals Animals 2011 1 1 7 26
-
Plous S. Psychological mechanisms in the human use of animals Journal of Social Issues 1993 49 1 11 52
-
Preylo B. D. & Arikawa H. Comparison of vegetarians and non-vegetarians on pet attitude and empathy Anthrozoös 2008 21 4 387 396
-
Prguda E. & Neumann D. Inter-human and animal-directed empathy: A test for evolutionary biases in empathic responding Behavioural Processes 2014 October 108 80 86
-
Rothgerber H. & Mican F. Childhood pet ownership, attachment to pets, and subsequent meat avoidance: The mediating role of empathy toward animals Appetite 2014 August 79 11 17
-
Serpell J. A. & Paul E. S. Manning A. & Serpell J. Pets and the development of positive attitudes to animals Animals and human society: Changing perspectives London Routledge 127 144
-
Signal T. D. & Taylor N. Attitude to animals and empathy: Comparing animal protection and general community samples Anthrozoös 2006 20 2 125 130
-
Tang T. & Billeaud J. Petition, advocates help spare ‘Mickey,’ pit bull who mauled 4-year-old Arizona boy Huffington Post 2014 Accessed 2/26/15 http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/03/26/pit-bull-mauls-arizona-boy_n_5036629.html
-
Taylor N. & Signal T. D. Empathy and attitudes to animals Anthrozoös 2005 18 1 18 27
-
Thompson K. & Gullone E. Promotion of empathy and prosocial behaviour in children through humane education Australian Psychologist 2003 38 3 175 182
-
Thompson K. & Gullone E. Prosocial and antisocial behaviors in adolescents: An investigation into associations with attachment and empathy Anthrozoös 2008 21 2 123 137
-
Tierney K. Foreshadowing Katrina: Recent sociological contributions to vulnerability science Contemporary Sociology 2006 35 3 207 212
-
Toi M. & Batson C. D. More evidence that empathy is a source of altruistic motivation Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1982 43 2 281 292
-
Topolski R., Weaver J. N., Martin Z. & McCoy J. Choosing between the emotional dog and the rational pal: A moral dilemma with a tail Anthrozoös 2013 26 2 253 263
-
Twining H., Arluke A. & Patronek G. Managing the stigma of outlaw breeds: The case of pit bull owners Society & Animals 2000 8 1 1 27
-
Vollum S., Buffington-Vollum J. & Longmire D. R. Moral disengagement and attitudes about violence toward animals Society & Animals 2004 12 3 209 235
-
Westbury H. R., Neumann D. L. & Waters A. M. Empathy-related ratings to still images of human and nonhuman animal groups in negative contexts graded for phylogenetic similarity Anthrozoös 2015 28 1 113 130
-
Wright J., Smith A., Daniel K. & Adkins K. Dog breed stereotype and exposure to negative behavior: Effects on perceptions of adoptability Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 2007 10 3 255 265
| All Time | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 12281 | 2096 | 127 |
| Full Text Views | 727 | 49 | 5 |
| PDF Views & Downloads | 349 | 63 | 1 |
Are People More Disturbed by Dog or Human Suffering?
Influence of Victim’s Species and Age
In: Society & AnimalsSearch for other papers by Jack Levin in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Arnold Arluke in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Leslie Irvine in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
This research examines whether people are more emotionally disturbed by reports of non-human animal than human suffering or abuse. Two hundred and fifty-six undergraduates at a major northeastern university were asked to indicate their degree of empathy for a brutally beaten human adult or child versus an adult dog or puppy, as described in a fictitious news report. We hypothesized that the vulnerability of victims—determined by their age and not species—would determine participants’ levels of distress and concern for them. The main effect for age but not for species was significant. We also found more empathy for victims who are human children, puppies, and fully-grown dogs than for victims who are adult humans. Age makes a difference for empathy toward human victims, but not for dog victims. In addition, female participants were significantly more empathic toward all victims than were their male counterparts.
| All Time | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 12281 | 2096 | 127 |
| Full Text Views | 727 | 49 | 5 |
| PDF Views & Downloads | 349 | 63 | 1 |