Raamses, Pithom, and the Exodus: A Critical Evaluation of Ex 1:11
In: Vetus TestamentumSearch for other papers by Bernd Ulrich Schipper in
Current site
Google Scholar
Up to the present, the brief notice on the storage cities of “Pithom” and “Raamses” and the forced labour of the Israelites in Ex 1:11 has been taken as the historical nucleus of a possible exodus scenario under Ramesses ii.
This article presents a critical evaluation of the classical theory, taking into account recent insights in Archaeology, Egyptology, and Philology. Since a number of arguments call the classical theory into question, a historical background of Ex 1:11 in the late 7th century bce becomes more likely, when Judahites had to perform forced labour for the Egyptian hegemon in the Southern Levant.
Purchase
Buy instant access (PDF download and unlimited online access):
Institutional Login
Log in with Open Athens, Shibboleth, or your institutional credentials
Personal login
Log in with your brill.com account
-
Aḥituv S. “Pashhur” iej 1970 20 95 96
-
Albertz R. A History of Israelite Religion in the Old Testament Period 1994 Louisville
-
Albertz R. Exodus Band i: Ex 1-18 2012 Zurich zbk.at 2.1
-
Allen J.P. Hallo W.W. “A Report of Bedouin (3.5)” The Context of Scripture, Vol iii: Archival Documents from the Biblical World 2002 Leiden et al. 16 17
-
Alt A. Alt A. “Die Deltaresidenz der Ramessiden” Kleine Schriften zur Geschichte des Volkes Israel iii 1954 Munich 176 185 1959
-
Avigad N. & Sass B. Corpus of West Semitic Stamp Seals 1997 Jerusalem
-
Baden J.S. “From Joseph to Moses: The Narratives of Exodus 1-2” vt 2012 62 133 158
-
Berner C. Die Exoduserzählung: Das literarische Werden einer Ursprungslegende Israels 2010 Tübingen fat 73
-
Bietak M. Redford D.B. “Dabca, Tell ed-” The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt i 2003 Oxford 351 354
-
Blum E. “Der historische Mose und die Frühgeschichte Israels” HeBAI 2012 1 37 63
-
Bright J.A A History of Israel: With an Introduction and Appendix by William P. Brown 2000 Louisville 4
-
Carr D.M. Dozeman T.B. & Schmid K. “What is Required to Identify Pre-Priestly Narrative Connections between Genesis and Exodus? Some General Reflections and Specific Cases” A Farewell to the Yahwist? The Composition of the Pentateuch in Recent European Interpretation 2006 Atlanta 159 180 SBLSymS 34
-
Collins A. “The Biblical Pithom and Tell el-Mashkuta: A Critique of Some Recent Theories on Exodus 1,11” sjot 22 2008 135 149
-
Cross F.M. “Epigraphic Notes of Hebrew Documents of the Eighth-Sixth Centuries b.c. ii: The Murabbacat Papyrus and the Letter Found near Yabneh-Yam” basor 1962 165 34 46
-
Donner H. Geschichte des Volkes Israel und seiner Nachbarn in Grundzügen 1: Von den Anfängen bis zur Staatenbildungszeit 2007 4 1 Göttingen gat 4
-
Engel H. Die Vorfahren Israels in Ägypten: Forschungsgeschichtlicher Überblick über die Darstellungen seit Richard Lepsius Frankfurter Theologische Studien 1979 27 Frankfurt a.M.
-
Fantalkin A. “Mezad Ḥashavyahu. Its Material Culture and Historical Background” Tel Aviv 2001 28 1 3 165
-
Finkelstein I. & Silberman N.A. The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of its Sacred Texts 2002 New York
-
Fischer-Elfert H.W. “In Praise of Pi-Ramesse—A perfect trading center (including two new Semitic words in syllabic orthography [Ostr. Ashmolean Museum ho 1187])” 2014
-
Gardiner A.H. “The Delta Residence of the Ramessides” jea 1918 5 127 138 179 200 242 271
-
Gardiner A.H. “Tanis and Pi-Racmesse: A Retraction” jea 1933 19 122 128
-
Gardiner A.H. Late Egyptian Miscellanies Bibliotheca Egyptiaca 1937 7 Brüssel
-
Gertz J.C. Tradition und Redaktion in der Exoduserzählung: Untersuchungen zur Endredaktion des Pentateuch frlant 2000 186 Göttingen
-
Gesenius W. Hebräisches und Aramäisches Handwörterbuch über das Alte Testament 2007 4 Berlin/Heidelberg 18
-
Gitin S. Gitin S., Mazar A. & Stern E. “Philistia in Transition: The Tenth Century bce and Beyond” Mediterraenean Peoples in Transition: Thirteenth to Early Tenth Centuries bce 1998 Jerusalem 162 183
-
Goedicke H. Helck W. & Otto E. “Tell er-Retabe” Lexikon der Ägyptologie vi 1986 Wiesbaden 353 354
-
Görg M. Otto E. “Mose—Name und Namensträger” Mose: Ägypten und das Alte Testament 2000 189 Stuttgart 17 42 sbs
-
Graham G. Redford D.B. “Tanis” The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt iii 2003 Oxford 348 350
-
Graham G. Day J. “Was there an Exodus?” In Search of Pre-exilic Israel 2004 406 London / New York 23 40 jsot.S
-
Griffiths J.G. “The Egyptian Derivation of the Name Moses” jnes 1953 12 225 231
-
Guermeur I. Les cultes d’amon hors de Thèbes: Recherches de géographie religieuse 2005 Turnhout
-
Helck W. “Ṯkw und die Ramsesstadt” vt 1965 15 35 48
-
Herrmann S. Israel in Egypt 1973 Naperville
-
Herrmann S. A History of Israel in Old Testament Times 1981 Philadephia 2
-
Hoch J. Semitic Words in Egyptian Texts of the New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1994 Princeton
-
Hoffmann Y. “A North Israelite Typological Myth and a Judaean Historical Tradition: The Exodus in Hosea and Amos” vt 1989 39 169 182
-
Hoffmeier J.K. Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition 1999 New York
-
Holladay J.S. Jr. Redford D.B. “Wadi Tumilat” The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt iii 2003 Oxford 878 881
-
James F.W. & McGovern P.E. The Late Bronze Egyptian Garrison at Beth Shan: A Study of Levels vii and viii, vol i University monograph 85 1993 Philadelphia
-
Jansen-Winkeln K. van der Veen P. & Zerbst U. “Die Schischak-Schoschenk-Gleichung: Weitere Begründung der konventionellen Sichtweise” Biblische Archäologie am Scheideweg? Für und Wider einer Neudatierung archäologischer Epochen im alttestamentlichen Palästina 2002 Holzgerlingen 113 114 Studium Integrale
-
Jansen-Winkeln K. “Pithom” wibilex 2007 March http://www.bibelwissenschaft.de/wibilex/das-bibellexikon/details/quelle/wibi/zeichen/p/referenz/31072///cache/d43639a526/4.10.2013.
-
Kitchen K.A. Aḥituv S. & Oren E.D. “Egyptians and Hebrews from Racamses to Jericho” The Origin of Early Israel 1998 65 131 Beer-Sheva 12
-
Kitchen K.A. On the Reliability of the Old Testament 2003 Grand Rapids
-
Knauf E.A. Midian: Untersuchungen zur Geschichte Palästinas und Nordarabiens am Ende des 2. Jahrtausends v. Chr. adpv 1988 Wiesbaden
-
Koehler L. & Baumgartner W. The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (halot) 2001 Leiden/Boston Subsequently revised by Walter Baumgartner and Johann Jakob Stamm
-
Kratz R.G. The Composition of the Narrative Books of the Old Testament 2005 London/New York
-
Lemche N.P. Prelude to Israel’s Past: Background and Beginnings of Israelite History and Identity 1998 Peabody
-
Loprieno A. Guksch H. & Polz D. “Nḥsj der Südländer” Stationen: Beiträge zur Kulturgeschichte Ägyptens: Festschrift für R. Stadelmann 1998 Mainz 211 217
-
Lloyd A.B. Herodotus Book ii: Commentary 99-182 1988 Leiden
-
Malamat A. Frerichs E.S. & Lesko L.H. “The Exodus: Egyptian Analogies” Exodus. The Egyptian Evidence 1997 Winona Lake 15 26
-
Mazar A. Kratz R.G. & Spieckermann H. “Tel Beth-Shean: History and Archeology” One God—One Cult—One Nation 2010 405 Berlin/New York 239 271 bzaw
-
Miller J.M. & Hayes J.H. A History of Ancient Israel and Judah 2006 Louisville 2
-
Moore M.B. & Kelle B.E. Biblical History and Israel’s Past 2011 Grand Rapids
-
Montet P. “Tanis, Avaris et Pi-Ramsès” rb 1930 39 5 28
-
Morenz L. “Wortwitz—Ideologie—Geschichte: „Israel“ im Horizont Mer-en-ptahs” zaw 2008 120 1 13
-
Naville E. The Store-City of Pithom and the Route of the Exodus 1903 London 4
-
Naville E. “The Geography of the Exodus” jea 1924 10 18 39
-
Nöldeke T. “Die so genannte Grundschrift des Pentateuchs” Untersuchungen zur Kritik des Alten Testaments 1869 Kiel 1 144
-
Noth M. History of Israel 1960 London 2
-
Oblath M.D. “Of Pharaohs and Kings—Whence the Exodus?” jsot 2000 87 23 42
-
Osing J. Die Nominalbildung des Ägyptischen 1976 Mainz 2 Vols.
-
Oswald W. Staatstheorie im Alten Israel: Der politische Diskurs im Pentateuch und in den Geschichtsbüchern des Alten Testaments 2009 Stuttgart
-
Otto E. Otto E. “Die Mose-Figur als Gegenentwurf politischer Theologie zur neuassyrischen Königsideologie im 7. Jh. v. Chr.” Mose: Ägypten und das Alte Testament 2000 Stuttgart 43 83 sbs 189
-
Pusch E.B. Redford D.B. “Piramesse” The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt iii 2003 Oxford 48 50
-
Quack J.F. Gertz J.C. & Jericke D. “Sehnsucht nach der Heimat und Lob des Erbauers: Ägyptische Städtepreisungen in ramessidischen Papyri und Ostraka” Ort und Bedeutung 2010 Kamen 19 48
-
Ragazzoli C. Éloges de la ville en Égypte ancienne. Histoire et littérature 2008 Paris
-
Ranke H. “Aegypten iii: Aegypten und das Alte Testament” rggi 1909 202 207
-
Redford D.B. “Exodus i 11” vt 13 1963 401 418
-
Redford D.B. Rainey A.F. “An Egyptian Perspective on the Exodus Tradition” Egypt, Israel, Sinai 1987 Tel Aviv 137 161
-
Redford D.B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times 1992 Princeton
-
Redford D.B. Brand P.J. & Cooper L. “The Land of Ramesses” Causing His Name to Live (gs W.J. Murnane) 2009 Leiden/Boston 175 177 chane 37
-
Redford D.B. Lischitz O., Knoppers G.N. & Oeming M. “Some Observations on the Traditions Surrounding ‘Israel in Egypt’ Judah and the Judeans in the Achaemenid Period 2011 Winona Lake 279 364
-
Redmount C.A. On an Egyptian/Asiatic Frontier: An Archaeological History of the Wadi Tumilat 1989 6 volumes Ph.D. diss.; University of Chicago
-
Redmount C.A. “The Wadi Tumilat and the ‘Canal of the Pharaohs’ ” jnes 1995 54 127 135
-
Redmount C.A. Coogan M.D. “Bitter Lives: Israel in and out of Egypt” The Oxford History of the Biblical World 1998 Oxford 58 89
-
Renz J. Die althebräischen Inschriften Teil 1: Text und Kommentar Handbuch der Althebräischen Epigraphik i 1995 Darmstadt
-
Röllig W. Siegel und Gewichte Handbuch der althebräischen Epigraphik 2003 ii 2 Darmstadt
-
Schipper B.U. Israel und Ägypten in der Königszeit: Die kulturellen Kontakte von Salomo bis zum Fall Jerusalems obo 1999 170 Fribourg/Göttingen
-
Schipper B.U. “Egypt and the Kingdom of Judah under Josiah and Jehoijakim” ta 2010 37 200 226
-
Schipper B.U. “Egypt and Israel. The Ways of Cultural Contact in the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age (20th-26th Dynasty)” Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 2012 4 30 47
-
Schipper B.U. Schorch S. & Waschke E.J. “The History of Egyptology and the Gesenius Dictionary” Biblische Exegese und Hebräische Lexikographie 2013 427 Berlin/Boston 482 505 bzaw
-
Schmid K. Genesis and the Moses story: Israel’s Dual Origins in the Hebrew Bible 2010 Winona Lake
-
Schmidt W.H. Exodus bk 1988 ii 1 Neukirchen-Vluyn
-
Spiegelberg W. Der Aufenthalt Israels in Aegypten im Lichte der aegyptischen Monumente 1904 Strassburg
-
Talmon S. Talmon S. “The New Hebrew Letter From the Seventh Century B.C.E. in Historical Perspective” (1964) King, Cult and Calendar in Ancient Israel 1986 Leiden/Jerusalem 79 88
-
Uehlinger C. “Der Amun-Tempel Ramses iii. in pꜣ-Kncn, seine südpalästinischen Tempelgüter und der Übergang von der Ägypter- zur Philisterherrschaft: Ein Hinweis auf einige wenig beachtete Skarabäen” zdpv 1988 104 6 25
-
Van Seters J. Dearman J.A. & Graham M.P. “The Geography of the Exodus” The Land that I Will Show You 2001 343 Sheffield 255 276 jsot.S
-
Vergote J. “A propos du nom de Moïse” bseg 1980 4 89 95
-
Weippert M. Blum E., Macholz C. & Stegemann E.W. “Die Petition eines Erntearbeiters aus Mɘṣad Ḥăšavyāhū und die Syntax althebräischer erzählender Prosa” Die Hebräische Bibel und ihre zweifache Nachgeschichte: Festschrift für Rolf Rendtorff 1990 Neukirchen-Vluyn 449 466
-
Wimmer S. Palästinisches Hieratisch. Die Zahl- und Sonderzeichen der althebräischen Schrift Ägypten und Altes Testament 2008 75 Wiesbaden
-
1
For an overview see Engel, p. 49 and p. 103.
-
2
See the overview by Moore/Kelle, pp. 88-92 and Redmount, 1998, p. 65. The most prominent Egyptological voice for such a minimalist position is Redford, 1992, pp. 408-412 (see also Redford 1987, 2009 and 2011), whereas the ‘maximalist’ approach is represented, for example, by Kitchen, 1998 and Hoffmeier, 1999.
-
3
See, for example, Schmidt, p. 36; Graham, pp. 28-30.
-
7
Albertz, 1994, p. 45. See also p. 44: “However, one report is credible, namely that the Egyptians set the group to build the ‘store cities Pithom and Ramses’ (Ex. 1:11).” In his commentary on the book of Exodus from 2012, Albertz is more cautious, arguing that only “Ramses” contains “schemenhaft eine alte Erinnerung” (ibid., p. 29).
-
8
Herrmann, 1973, pp. 58-59; Schmidt, pp. 36-37; Malamat, pp. 18-22 and Graham, 2004, p. 28.
-
9
Gardiner, 1918, p. 261.
-
10
See already Spiegelberg, p. 24.
-
11
Allen, pp. 16-17.
-
12
Gardiner, 1937, p. 76.
-
13
See, for example, Noth, pp. 113-114 and Alt, p. 184, n. 4 where he points to other notes in the Hebrew Bible, using the same argument: Gen 47:11; Ex 12:37; Num 33:3, 5.
-
14
Alt, p. 184. See also Hermann, 1973, p. 27 n. 42 (p. 75); Schmidt, p. 38; Kitchen, p. 69 and Graham, 2004, p. 28 with further references.
-
15
Spiegelberg, pp. 38-39.
-
16
For an analysis of the stela see Morenz, pp. 1-13 who, however, dates the campaign to the second or third regnal year of Merneptah (1211 or 1210 bce, ibid., p. 12).
-
17
See most recently Blum, p. 48 with n. 39.
-
18
Redford, p. 410.
-
19
See, for example, Graham, 2004, p. 28.
-
20
James/McGovern, p. 4; Mazar, p. 260.
-
21
For an overview, see Schipper, 2012, p. 32.
-
22
See Uehlinger, pp. 11-12 (fig. 1-3).
-
23
Uehlinger, p. 12.
-
25
Montet, p. 28, followed by Gardiner, 1933, pp. 122-123.
-
27
Bietak, p. 351; Pusch, p. 48.
-
28
Graham, 2003, p. 349 and for the monuments Montet, pl. iii and iv.
-
29
So already Redford, 1963, p. 409; see also Redford, 1987, p. 140.
-
31
Jansen-Winkeln, 2007. See also Collins, p. 147 and for the results of the “Wadi Tumilat-Project” Holladay 1999.
-
33
Graham, 2004, 30. This is the result of the detailed evaluation of Collins, pp. 136-147.
-
34
Goedicke, p. 353; Redmount, 1989, p. 182, and for the topography Holladay, 1999, p. 879.
-
35
So also Redford, 2011, p. 305.
-
36
Guermeur, pp. 263-264 (dp Pi-Ramsès 6; Cairo cg 700 and 689).
-
38
Quack, pp. 26-27.
-
40
Cf. Redford, 1963, p. 409 with older literature, and Griffiths, p. 225.
-
41
Helck, pp. 45-46; Gardiner, 1918, p. 136 with discussion of further material.
-
44
See Uehlinger, pp. 11-12 (fig. 1-3).
-
46
So already Redford, 1963, p. 409 (see also Redford 2009, p. 176, and Redford, 2011, p. 304).
-
48
Griffiths, p. 225 with reference to previous literature.
-
49
Osing, p. 371 and p. 479 n. 138.
-
50
Görg, pp. 19-20.
-
52
See on the one hand, Helck, pp. 43-47 and on the other Redford, 1963, pp. 411-412; Redford 2009, and Redford 2011, p. 304 with n. 79-80.
-
53
See already Griffiths, 1953, p. 231.
-
54
See for further references on this Knauf, p. 105; Quack, p. 27, n. 28; Jansen-Winkeln, 2002, p. 114, n. 2 and Vergote, p. 92. If one wants to follow James Hoch, the use of samech (s3) for Egyptian ś can be dated more precisely to the period after the 8th century bce (25th Dynasty in Egypt), see Hoch, p. 368, no. 548; Redford, 2009, p. 175 with further references in n. 9, and Redford, 2011, p. 304.
-
55
See, for example, Hoch, p. 368, no. 548.
-
56
See Gesenius (18th ed.), p. 1049; halot, p. 925.
-
57
Redford, 1963, p. 412.
-
58
Schipper, 1999, p. 282, n. 560.
-
59
Gesenius (18th ed.), p. 877; halot, p. 746. The toponym Sin (סִין) in Ez 30:15 can probably also be related to the Egyptian word śwn, see Gesenius (18th ed.), p. 833.
-
60
See Gesenius (18th ed.), p. 1094; halot, p. 991.
-
61
Loprieno, pp. 211-212 and 216-217.
-
62
Schipper, 2013, p. 498 with further references.
-
63
Gesenius (18th ed.), p. 1349.
-
64
Renz, pp. 162-163.
-
65
Aḥituv, pp. 96-97.
-
66
Osing, pp. 856-857 and Gesenius (18th ed.), p. 535.
-
69
See, for example, Schmidt, pp. 18-21.
-
71
Carr, p. 172-175.
-
72
Kratz, p. 280. J. Baden, though, recently renewed the old argument that Ex 1:8-12 should be seen as a unit which belongs to the J story (Baden, p. 136). In contrast, C. Berner argues that Ex 1:11-12 forms a unit with vv. 9-10 (Berner, p. 10 with n. 1), but takes v. 11b as a post-priestly addition (ibid., p. 434).
-
73
So already Nöldeke, p. 35 and Schmidt, pp. 15-16.
-
74
See Baden, p. 137 with an overview on the scholarly discussion on this in n. 11.
-
75
Gertz, p. 381 (Ex 1:11-12, 15-20a, 21-22; 2:1-22). In contrast, Konrad Schmid, for example, has argued that Exodus 1 “contains no textual material that can be dated earlier than P” (p. 216).
-
76
Gertz, p. 371; Schmid, p. 217 and Kratz, p. 280.
-
77
Schmid, pp. 217-218.
-
78
Gertz et al., p. 356 argue for a kernel which goes back to the 8th century (after 722), but the similarities between the Moses narrative (Ex 2*) and the Sargon legend (if one wants to see them) could be also explained in light of the situation in the 7th century bce (see Otto, pp. 60-72 with a different conclusion).
-
79
Lemche, pp. 55-56; Finkelstein, p. 66 and Oswald, p. 83.
-
80
Collins, pp. 143-144.
-
81
Redmount, 1995, pp. 133-134.
-
82
Lloyd, pp. 150-155 and Redmount, 1995, p. 135, n. 36.
-
83
See Redmount, 1995, p. 134 who pointed to Muhammad Ali who “used a corvée of 80,000 fellahin to excavate his Wadi Canal.”
-
84
Schmidt, p. 34; halot, p. 603 and Gesenius (18th ed.), p. 700.
-
87
Schipper, 2010, p. 207.
-
88
Gitin, p. 173.
-
89
See for this Schipper, 2010, pp. 211-212 with reference to Wimmer, Fantalkin and others.
-
92
Schipper, 2010, p. 213.
-
94
Renz, pp. 295-296 and pp. 341-343. See also Wimmer, pp. 103-113.
-
95
Schipper, 2010, p. 211.
-
96
Röllig, p. 422.
-
97
Wimmer, pp. 68-69 and Schipper, 2010, p. 217.
-
98
Schipper, 2010, pp. 209-211 with further references.
-
101
Weippert, pp. 449-466.
-
102
See Cross, p. 44. For the verb כול see Gesenus (18th ed.), p. 531.
-
103
Cross, p. 45. Talmon, p. 82 assumed an “annual corvée”.
-
105
Wimmer, 2008, p. 86.
-
106
Avigad/Sass, pp. 56-57 (no. 20).
-
107
Avigad/Sass, p. 57.
| All Time | Past 365 days | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 1839 | 373 | 47 |
| Full Text Views | 332 | 9 | 3 |
| PDF Views & Downloads | 157 | 27 | 4 |
Raamses, Pithom, and the Exodus: A Critical Evaluation of Ex 1:11
In: Vetus TestamentumSearch for other papers by Bernd Ulrich Schipper in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Up to the present, the brief notice on the storage cities of “Pithom” and “Raamses” and the forced labour of the Israelites in Ex 1:11 has been taken as the historical nucleus of a possible exodus scenario under Ramesses ii.
This article presents a critical evaluation of the classical theory, taking into account recent insights in Archaeology, Egyptology, and Philology. Since a number of arguments call the classical theory into question, a historical background of Ex 1:11 in the late 7th century bce becomes more likely, when Judahites had to perform forced labour for the Egyptian hegemon in the Southern Levant.
| All Time | Past 365 days | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 1839 | 373 | 47 |
| Full Text Views | 332 | 9 | 3 |
| PDF Views & Downloads | 157 | 27 | 4 |
