It is a great pleasure to present the second volume of the Baron Lectures series to the public. This volume is once again a tribute to Salo W. and Jeannette M. Baron, whose research spanned multiple continents—Europe, North Africa, America, and the Middle East—and extended across centuries. Similarly, this volume encompasses a diverse range of topics in various academic fields, including Biblical studies, literary studies, and history. Contributors from around the globe present work that crosses both geographical and temporal boundaries. As such, the contents of this volume reflect the interdisciplinary nature of Salo W. and Jeannette M. Baron’s scholarship, as well as the spirit of the Baron Awards, to which this book series is connected.
The Salo W. and Jeannette M. Baron Awards for Scholarly Excellence in Research of the Jewish Experience were established in 2020, commemorating Salo W. Baron’s 125th birthday. Administered by the University of Vienna and funded by the Knapp Family Foundation, alongside the Salo W. and Jeannette M. Baron Foundation, these awards honour distinguished and aspiring scholars whose research is connected to the Jewish experience. The awards aim to recognise groundbreaking research and studies in this field, acknowledging scholarly excellence in memory of Salo W. and Jeannette M. Baron. Additionally, these awards serve as an incentive for future scholars to follow in the Barons’ footsteps, reassessing and exploring Jewish history.
As with the previous volume, the second volume of the Baron Lectures brings together current research related to the 2023 Baron Awards. Emanuel Tov, recipient of the 2023 Baron Senior Award, is an expert in the textual history of Judaism’s foundational text—the Hebrew Bible. Like Salo W. Baron, Emanuel Tov has not only contributed to a new field of research but has also played a significant role in organising research and science.
Born in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, Tov emigrated to Israel in 1961. He studied Bible and Greek literature at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and furthered his education in the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Literatures at Harvard University. He earned his PhD from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and has served as a professor in its Department of Bible for over twenty years. Tov has specialised in various aspects of the textual criticism of Hebrew and Greek Scripture, as well as the Qumran Scrolls. He has written and edited numerous books and articles, including two textbooks, most notably Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible. Since the 1990s, Tov has been a leading figure in the Dead Sea Scrolls Publication Project, under whose guidance more than thirty volumes were published between 1992 and 2010 in the Discoveries in the Judaean Desert series. Emanuel Tov remains deeply engaged with the Hebrew Bible, its text, evolution, and tradition. This volume not only pays tribute to his expertise but also highlights the ongoing importance of the Hebrew Bible in Jewish life, religious practice, and scholarly research.
The Baron Young Scholars Awards are presented alongside the Senior Award to honour exceptional scholarly work conducted by postgraduate students and early career researchers. These awards recognise research focused on the relationship between Jews and non-Jews, as well as perceptions and understandings of Judaism within broader societies. This encompasses the history, culture, religion, and institutions of the Jewish people, including their persecution. In 2023, Amy Fedeski and Alina L. Schittenhelm received the Young Scholars Awards for their outstanding proposals. Each was granted a three-month research stay in Vienna to advance their work on current research topics.
Amy Fedeski is Alfred and Isabel Bader Postdoctoral Fellow in Jewish History at Queen’s University in Kingston, Ontario. She completed her PhD at the Corcoran Department of History, University of Virginia in 2022 with a dissertation entitled “What We Want To Do As Americans”: Jewish Political Activism and United States Refugee Policy, 1969–1981. Her doctoral research, which she is currently writing up as a book, argues that Jewish American Non-Governmental Organisations fundamentally remade American refugee politics in ways which still resonate today. Amy Fedeski’s wider research interests focus on transnational Jewish migration politics during the Cold War. Amy Fedeski is working on her second project, “All Doors Are Closed to Us”: Soviet Jewish Returnees from Israel in Cold War Europe. This research examines the experiences of Soviet Jewish migrants who, after first settling in Israel, returned to Europe seeking resettlement elsewhere. These migrants found themselves in legal and social limbo, unwilling to return to Israel and unable to claim refugee status in third countries. This project explores how returnees moved across Europe, engaging with national and international legal regimes, NGOs, and Jewish communities across Europe and on the global stage, in search of stability and status.
Alina L. Schittenhelm is a PhD candidate at the University of Potsdam and has been an ELES research fellow since April 2022. In May 2021, Schittenhelm completed her Master of Arts in Jewish Studies at the University of Potsdam, following a Bachelor’s degree in Jewish Studies and Philosophy. From February to October 2023, she undertook a research stay at the Department of Literature at Tel Aviv University, funded by the German Academic Exchange Service. Her areas of interest include Hebrew language and literature, as well as Israel and Mizrahi Studies. Her PhD project focuses on topographies and gender in modern Mizrahi literature. The study aims to bring to light counter-narratives and nuances in the image of Jewishness through voices from the spatial and social margins of Israeli society. She examines the works of authors such as Ronit Matalon, Dorit Rabinyan, Sami Berdugo, and Sara Shilo, analysing both their content and language. This research is situated within the discipline of Israel Studies and addresses the artistic processing of history, memories, and society.
The two projects, which may initially seem unrelated to the Hebrew Bible, nonetheless contain strong Jewish references that are intricately tied to their textual foundations. Upon closer inspection, both research projects reveal that the Hebrew Bible deeply influences Jewish life in many aspects, from migration history to contemporary discourses. Fedeski’s and Schittenhelm’s articles engage in an intriguing dialogue with the Hebrew Bible, applying its timeless themes and moral issues to modern contexts. As one of the most important religious texts in the world, the Hebrew Bible has undergone numerous interpretations, translations, and adaptations over the centuries. This volume is dedicated to the diversity of these traditions, examining how they manifest in different Jewish cultures, times, and contexts. From theological reflections to historical analyses and literary interpretations, the volume offers a multifaceted insight into the rich and complex world of biblical traditions.
The authors in this volume are as diverse as their research approaches. We have gathered academics at different stages of their careers to share their perspectives, both individually and collectively. The volume includes contributions from participants in the second Baron Young Scholars Workshop in 2023, as well as papers by invited authors. Given the interdisciplinary nature of their research and their varied academic advancement, the papers in this volume are quite diverse. However, all the articles address topics related to senior laureate Emanuel Tov’s research on the Hebrew Bible and highlight its history and tradition.
This spotlight on the Hebrew Bible is further emphasised by the variety within the contributions, which may differ significantly in subject area, period, tradition (Sephardic or Ashkenazi), method, or interpretation. Despite these differences, the volume as a whole illustrates the rich array of research that the Hebrew Bible continues to inspire. It showcases the diverse backgrounds and research focuses of scholars who delve into this foundational text, highlighting its enduring significance and complexity.
This diversity of perspectives, voices, and approaches in the contributions to this volume also posed a challenge in determining the right order for the book. The volume is now divided into four equal parts, each examining different facets of the Hebrew Bible. The book opens with a microlevel analysis of the biblical text and its reception, then broadens to explore historical contexts beyond antiquity, and finally concludes with modern cultural references, depicting both direct and indirect influences of the Hebrew Bible in contemporary society.
The first part focuses on the text of the Hebrew Bible. The textual history of the Hebrew Bible, also known as the Tanakh in Jewish tradition, spans over millennia, with its development, transmission, and reception playing a foundational role in Jewish culture until the present day. An investigation of the biblical text, its original form(s) and numerous extant variants is the subject of textual criticism, strongly influenced by Emanuel Tov. Textual criticism works on intra- and intertextual levels as well as on factors implicating the fashioning and evolution of the biblical texts from the outside world. Material to work with to shed light on the development of the Hebrew Bible and to support exegesis of its content include textual variants from various geographic areas as well as translations. This first part of the book therefore brings together articles that closely examine the biblical Hebrew text, reflecting a broad range of research approaches. These contributions explore the history of our modern Bibles, engage in detailed analysis of specific biblical texts, and investigate the numerous translations the Bible has undergone throughout history.
In his opening article, The Many Faces of the Bible: The Pre-History of Our Modern Bibles, senior laureate Emanuel Tov explores the sources we rely on for consulting the Hebrew Bible. He argues that, given that most people today access the Hebrew Bible through translations, it is crucial to understand what these translations are based on—the Hebrew text itself. Tov provides an overview of the evolution of the Hebrew text, tracing its development from the earliest documentation in the Dead Sea Scrolls to medieval redactions and modern-day translations. He asserts that, although we can never fully reconstruct the original text, the Hebrew Bible had already undergone numerous changes and redactions in ancient times. These ancient variants are “still visible in the text forms that have been accepted in the various religious communities” (13), and they can offer valuable insights into what ancient religious life might have looked like.
Michael Segal, in his contribution From the Desk of the Hebrew University Bible Project: Divergent Versions of Habakkuk 3, explores the textual variations of Habakkuk 3. His study is based on the research and formulation of Apparatus I to Habakkuk 3 in the HUBP edition, with a particular focus on the Greek evidence for this poetic section. While the apparatus system allows for detailed analysis, Segal’s current study aims to synthesize this complex data to shed light on the broader implications for understanding textual dynamics, which are crucial for grasping the development of biblical literature. Segal examines the versions of Habakkuk from the Masoretic Text, the Septuagint, and the so-called Barbarini version, seeking to delineate the different literary editions of Habakkuk 3. Although his study does not yet provide a definitive answer, Segal demonstrates that “the dynamic aspects of growth” (32) in texts like Habakkuk 3 must be considered both in this specific instance and more broadly in discussions about the contribution of textual versions to the literary evolution of biblical books.
In her article Ladino and Spanish Bibles: Different Traditions, Ora (Rodrigue) Schwarzwald investigates the variations between medieval Spanish Bible translations and Ladino translations from the sixteenth century. Her linguistic analysis highlights lexical and syntactical differences, as well as distinct features related to Jewish usage, such as the treatment of names, including the name of God. Schwarzwald finds that medieval translations tend to reproduce the content of the Hebrew text, whereas Ladino translations adhere more closely to its structure. This distinction underscores the influence of oral traditions on Ladino translations and their role in preserving linguistic practices. Her study provides insights into Jewish cultural and religious life over the centuries, illustrating how Ladino translations maintained the resilience of oral traditions and the uniqueness of Judeo-Spanish. This emphasises the significance of community practices in preserving language and tradition through religious texts.
Finally, Armin Lange demonstrates how textual history and reception history of the Hebrew Bible are closely connected. In his article Textual History as Reception History: Rabbi Meir’s Text of Isa 21:11, Lange analyses one particular variant reading of the book of Isaiah attributed to Rabbi Meir (second century CE). Rabbi Meir copied what the scribal tradition had transmitted as a scribal error: the toponym dumah that, by confusing the Hebrew characters dalet and resh, had changed for romah to refer to Rome. However, in Rabbi Meir’s version of the relevant text, he chose to render romah for romi, in accordance with contemporary rabbinic practice. Influenced by Koiné-Greek and contemporary cultural developments, this rendering does not only reflect the continuation of a scribal error, but, as Lange argues, a particular interpretive process. Lange’s article ends with the claim for acknowledgment of the textual history of the Hebrew Bible as “an important part of its interpretative history.” (76) It is the bridge to the second part of this volume.
The second part of this volume focuses on the reception of the Bible. The Hebrew Bible’s reception in Jewish culture has been foundational, shaping religious, legal, and ethical life across millennia. Its texts have been studied, interpreted, and expanded upon by rabbinic authorities in works like the Talmud and Midrash, providing deeper insights and practical applications for Jewish life. Throughout history, the Hebrew Bible has influenced Jewish liturgy, festivals, and communal identity, remaining a central reference for spiritual, moral, and legal guidance. Its ongoing interpretation continues to sustain its relevance in Jewish tradition and scholarship. Extending beyond the original Hebrew text to explore issues of interpretation and practice, the articles in this section address classical rabbinical exegesis, Kabbalistic interpretations, and the medieval transmission and re-appropriation of non-canonical books. This section delves into how the Bible has been understood and (re-)interpreted throughout history, reflecting its evolving impact on religious thought and practice.
Lawrence H. Schiffman’s article, Memory, Orality, and Textuality in the Reception of the Biblical Text in Rabbinic Literature, opens this section by examining the transmission of the biblical text through both oral and written channels. Schiffman argues that both modes played crucial roles in shaping cultural and religious memory within rabbinic literature. He explores how rabbinic efforts to standardise and correct the text were driven by a concern for textual accuracy, while also recognizing the dynamic nature of oral tradition, which allowed for expansions and developments. Schiffman details how the interplay between oral and written elements in the public reading of Scripture helped preserve variants, errors, and anomalies. He concludes that the integration of orality and textuality is a defining characteristic of rabbinic practice.
Yuval Katz-Wilfing’s article, Converts’ Souls in the Zohar, delves into the concept of soul transmigration within the context of medieval Kabbalah. Although this concept is not explicitly found in the Hebrew Bible, it held significant importance for Kabbalists. Katz-Wilfing explores the central dilemma faced by the Kabbalistic tradition: How can one become a Jew if being Jewish is associated with possessing a unique type of soul? In addressing this question, the Kabbalistic tradition posits that righteous figures like Abraham and Sarah can generate souls, including those of converts, from Heaven. This interpretation challenges earlier teachings regarding the nature and creation of the soul. Katz-Wilfing examines various interpretations of how a Jewish soul is imparted to a convert, noting that one approach suggests converts acquire their Jewish soul at the moment of conversion, while another posits that converts are endowed with Jewish souls from birth. He concludes that these ideas represent a profound shift in the understanding of the Jewish soul, akin to a Copernican revolution in traditional thought.
In her article, Examples of Medieval Judith Midrashim: The Reception of the Pre-Modern Niddah, Rosalie Gabay Bernheim explores not only the tradition of the Book of Judith as a non-canonical work but also, more specifically, the concept of niddah, or menstrual impurity. She examines the reception of medieval midrashim on Judith, focusing particularly on Megillat Yehudit. Medieval Judith midrashim depict the eponymous heroine in a strategic light, using her menstrual cycle as a symbolic tool of triumph for the Jewish people against non-Jewish adversaries. In response to the Christian tradition that had incorporated Judith into its canon, medieval Jewish texts reframe the concept of niddah to reassert the Jewish identity of Judith and her story. Bernheim argues that, from the tenth century onward, the portrayal of Judith as niddah served both to distinguish Jewish tradition from Christianity and to strengthen Jewish identity and self-perception.
Part III of the volume gathers historical approaches to the Hebrew Bible, showcasing exemplary research that examines this important text from a historical perspective. The contributions aim to provide a glimpse into how the Hebrew Bible has served as a historical reference point across various places and societies. This section illustrates the text’s influence and significance in different historical contexts, highlighting its role in shaping and reflecting historical narratives.
In his article, Strengthening the Faith of the Ex-Conversos: Karaites, Translation, and Biblical Exegesis in Northwest Europe, Benjamin Fisher examines the Hebrew Bible’s role among Karaites, Sephardic diaspora communities in Amsterdam and Hamburg, and Conversos in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. He focuses on Isaac ben Abraham of Troki’s Hizzuk Emunah, a 1593 anti-Christian treatise later translated into Spanish by Isaac Athias for ex-Conversos in Hamburg. Fisher explores why these groups engaged with, translated, and expanded upon each other’s works. He argues that Athias’ translation, despite his scepticism towards Karaism, was intended to help ex-Conversos reconnect with the Bible from a Jewish perspective. Fisher’s analysis underscores the fluid nature of medieval Hebrew manuscript culture and the significance of translation in religious and cultural exchanges.
Amy Fedeski’s article, The Role of Scripture and Ritual in the American Campaign for Soviet Jewish Emigration, 1964–1974, explores the impact of the Hebrew Bible and Jewish symbolism in the activism of the Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry (SSSJ). Founded in 1964, the SSSJ used biblical stories, holiday observances, and religious rituals in their campaigns to advocate for Soviet Jewish emigration. Fedeski’s analysis of campaigns and flyers reveals how the organisation employed biblical and religious symbols to engage both non-Orthodox Jews and Christians effectively. She argues that this strategic use of religious symbolism made the SSSJ a prominent advocate for Soviet Jewish emigration rights, demonstrating the enduring influence of the Hebrew Bible even in secular political contexts.
Emanuel Tov’s second article in this volume, The Discipline of Textual Criticism as Experienced in 1970–2020, concludes the third part by tracing the evolution of textual criticism from a nascent discipline to one increasingly integrated with Biblical exegesis and literary criticism, particularly following the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls. These documents, first uncovered in the late 1940s and studied into the twenty-first century, have significantly reshaped our understanding of the Hebrew Bible’s textual tradition. Tov highlights how the recognition of “textual plurality” (187) has transformed scholarly approaches and led to the development of new printed and digital editions of the Hebrew Bible since the 1950s. Institutional projects like the Hebrew University Bible Project and various online resources have broadened access to the text for both academics and the public. Reflecting on the progress made over the past fifty years, Tov concludes that the field has greatly advanced but underscores that much remains to be explored, emphasizing the need for continued scholarly inquiry.
The fourth and final part of the volume continues the exploration of the Biblical text from a different angle, focusing on its motifs in literary works across various contexts. This part of the volume demonstrates how, throughout history and bridging various forms of art, the Bible has been a source of Jewish identity, inspiration, and resilience. Its stories and symbols appear in literature and visual arts likewise, reflecting ongoing engagement with its themes of faith, justice, and identity. They also encourage reconsiderations of human life and nature, of gender constructions, and questions of identity and otherness. The articles in this part reflect this diverse engagement in using theoretical approaches different from that of traditional reception history represented in part III of this volume. The first two articles in this part examine children’s and young adult literature through a feminist lens, while the third article explores adult fiction within the Israeli setting. Together, these contributions not only provide a feminist perspective but also introduce a Mizrahi viewpoint, enhancing the volume’s intersectional approach.
In their article, The Gendering Garden, Daniel Vorpahl examines the creation narrative in Genesis and its influence on gender roles across biblical, rabbinic, and contemporary young adult literature, including Genesis Rabbah and Deborah Bodin Cohen’s 2006 work Lilith’s Ark. Vorpahl argues that while the Genesis narrative initially appears to support a binary gender structure, a deeper analysis reveals complexities that challenge this view. Vorpahl critiques the traditional binary interpretation for reinforcing heteronormative and androcentric gender hierarchies. In contrast, Lilith’s Ark reimagines Eve as an empowered figure who defies conventional gender norms. Vorpahl uses poststructuralist theory to critique these binary patterns and challenge prevailing heteronormative and androcentric interpretations.
In her article, Disturbed Depths: The Aquatic Otherness of the Leviathan in From Dust, A Flame, Marissa Herzig employs a literary and feminist lens to analyse Rebecca Podos’ young adult novel From Dust a Flame (2022). Herzig explores how the novel incorporates contemporary references to Biblical motifs, particularly focusing on the biblical Leviathan and various Jewish interpretations of water. She argues that both the Leviathan, as a representation of water, and water itself symbolise otherness in the novel. Herzig suggests that the protagonist’s nonhuman transformation challenges human and Jewish societal norms, offering a post-humanist and queer reinterpretation of traditional images.
In her concluding article, Beyond Religious and Secular: Biblical Intertextuality in Modern Mizrahi Literature, Alina L. Schittenhelm examines the role of the Bible in both modern Mizrahi literature and Mizrahi identity. She argues that, unlike Zionist efforts to secularise Hebrew literature, Mizrahi literature preserves Biblical references, blending religious and secular elements. Schittenhelm analyses three contemporary novels—Tchahla ve-Hezkel (Almog Behar, 2010), Shum Gamadim Lo Yavou (Sara Shilo, 2005), and Mox Nox (Shimon Adaf, 2011)—to reveal how Biblical motifs reflect ambivalences in Mizrahi identity. Her study explores questions of Masortiyut (traditionalism) and Mizrahiyut (Mizrahi identity), highlighting the role of Judaism in shaping migrant identities in Israel.
The diverse voices in this volume highlight the significance of the Hebrew Bible for Jewish identity, life, and experience up to the present day as well as the importance of its study through various scholarly lenses, including text-critical, literary, historical, cultural, religious, and political perspectives. Examining the Hebrew Bible as both a foundational religious text and a rich narrative compendium from such varied perspectives underscores its complexity, multiplicity, and the challenges it presents. Therefore, the aim of this volume is to illuminate and shed new light on both old and new questions, demonstrating the enduring interest and challenge of this significant scholarly topic.