1 Caesar, Augustus and Marcus Antonius, Schedel, 1493. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 4

2 Titus and Nerva, Ochsenbrunner, 1494. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 4

3 Iulia Drusilla, Illustrium imagines XX^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 5

4 Ianus, Illustrium imagines V^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 23

5 Ianus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 23

6 Alexander, Illustrium imagines V^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 27

7 Alexander the Great, Museo Capitolino. Photo: author 31

8 Alexander. © Skulpturensammlung und Museum für Byzantinische Kunst, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. photo: Jörg P. Anders. Art Resource, N.Y. 33

9 Alexander/Minerva. Courtesy National Gallery of Art, Washington 34

10 Minerva. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 37

11 Pompeius Magnus, Illustrium imagines VIII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 40

12 Lucius Aelius Caesar: Cohen, 1882, 2: 259, no. 16 42

13 Cato, Illustrium imagines IX^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 44

14 Bacchus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 44

15 Clodius, Illustrium imagines X^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 45

16 Apollo. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 46

17 Cassius, Illustrium imagines XI^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 47

18 Bonus Eventus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 47

19 Cicero, Illustrium imagines X^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 48

20 Cicero. Courtesy National Gallery of Art, Washington 49

21 Giovanni dal Cavino, Cicero. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 50

22 Brutus, Illustrium imagines XI^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 51

23 Brutus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 51

24 Marcus Antonius, Illustrium imagines XII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 53

25 Marcus Antonius. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 53

26 Cleopatra, Illustrium imagines XIII^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 54

27 Berenike II. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 54

28 Caesar, Illustrium imagines XVI^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 56

29 Julius Caesar. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 57

30 Julius Caesar. Bodleian Library Buchanan e-13. © Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford. Creative Commons license CC-BY-NC 4.0 59

31 Giovanni dal Cavino, Julius Caesar. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 60

32 Agrippina, Drusilla, and Iulia. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 63

33 Plaudilla Augusta, Illustrium imagines XX^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 65

34 Plautilla Augusta. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 65

35 Augustus, Illustrium imagines XXII^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 69

36 Augustus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 70

37 Marcus Agrippa, Illustrium imagines XXVI^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 71

38 Marcus Agrippa. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 71

39 Tiberius, Illustrium imagines XXIX^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 72

40 Tiberius. ANS 1944.100.39286. American Numismatic Society 72

41 Drusus, Illustrium imagines XXX^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 73

42 Drusus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 73

43 Antonia Augusta, Illustrium imagines XXXI^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 75

44 Antonia Augusta. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 76

45 Germanicus, Illustrium imagines XXXII^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 78

46 Germanicus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 78

47 Agrippina, Illustrium imagines XXXIII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 79

48 Agrippina. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 79

49 Caius Caesar, Illustrium imagines XXXV^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 80

50 Caligula. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 80

51 Claudius, Illustrium imagines XXXIX^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 80

52 Claudius. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 80

53 Nero, Illustrium imagines XLVII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 81

54 Nero. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 81

55 Galba, Illustrium imagines LI^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 82

56 Galba. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 82

57 Otho, Illustrium imagines LIIII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 83

58 Otho. ANS 1967.153.121. American Numismatic Society 83

59 Vitellius, Illustrium imagines LVI^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 83

60 Vitellius. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 83

61 Vespasianus, Illustrium imagines LIX^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 83

62 Vespasianus. ANS 1935.117.372. American Numismatic Society 83

63 Titus, Illustrium imagines LXI^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 85

64 Titus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 85

65 Domitianus, Illustrium imagines LXIII^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 87

66 Domitianus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 87

67 Iulia, Illustrium imagines LXIII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 87

68 Iulia Titi. ANS 1944.100.41833. American Numismatic Society 87

69 Nerva, Illustrium imagines LXV^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 89

70 Traianus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 91

71 Traianus, Illustrium imagines LXV^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 93

72 Hadrianus. ANS 1944.100.45616. American Numismatic Society 93

73 Hadrianus, Illustrium imagines LXVIII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 94

74 Hadrianus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 94

75 Sabina Augusta, Illustrium imagines LXIX^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 95

76 Sabina Augusta. ANS 1944.100.47473. American Numismatic Society 95

77 Antinous, Illustrium imagines LXIX^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 96

78 Hermes Andros, Museo Pio Clementino. Photo: author 97

79 Antinous Farnese, Museo archeologico nazionale, Naples. Photo: author 99

80 Antoninus Pius, Illustrium imagines LXXI^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 102

81 Antoninus Pius. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 102

82 Faustina Augusta, Illustrium imagines LXXIII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 103

83 Faustina minor. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 103

84 Faustinae Augustae, Illustrium imagines LXXIIII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 103

85 Faustina minor. ANS 1956.184.56. American Numismatic Society 103

86 Crispina Augusta, Illustrium imagines LXXIV^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 104

87 Crispina. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 105

88 Marcus Aurelius, Illustrium imagines LXXVI^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 106

89 Caracalla. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 106

90 Lucius Aelius Verus, Illustrium imagines LXXVIII^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 109

91 Lucius Aelius Verus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 109

92 Commodus, Illustrium imagines LXXX^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 110

93 Commodus. Cohen 1880–92, 3: 296, no. 507 110

94 Commodus. Cohen 1880–92, 3: 307, no. 572 111

95 Didius Iulianus, Illustrium imagines LXXXI^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 112

96 Didius Iulianus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 112

97 Septimius Severus, Illustrium imagines LXXXII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 113

98 Septimius Severus. ANS 1992.122.1. American Numismatic Society 113

99 Marcia Otacilia Severa, Illustrium imagines LXXXII^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 114

100 Marcia Otacilia Severa. ANS 1921.100.5. American Numismatic Society 114

101 Iulia Aquilia Severa, Illustrium imagines LXXXIII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 115

102 Iulia Aquilia Severa. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 115

103 Aurelius Caesar, Illustrium imagines LXXXIII^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 117

104 Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 117

105 Giovanni Boldù?, Caracalla. Courtesy National Gallery of Art, Washington 119

106 Iulia Mamea, Illustrium imagines LXXXIIII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 120

107 Iulia Mamaea. ANS 1944.100.53325. American Numismatic Society 120

108 (Severus) Alexander, Illustrium imagines LXXXIIII^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 121

109 Severus Alexander. © The Hunterian, University of Glasgow, 2018 121

110 Maximinus, Illustrium imagines LXXXV^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 122

111 Maximinus. © The Hunterian, University of Glasgow, 2018 122

112 Pipienus, Illustrium imagines LXXXV^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 123

113 Pupienus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 123

114 Balbinus, Illustrium imagines LXXXVI^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 123

115 Balbinus. ANS 1944.100.12996. American Numismatic Society 123

116 Pipienus & Balbinus, Rouillé 1553, part 2: 53. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 124

117 Gordianus, Illustrium imagines LXXXVI^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 126

118 Gordianus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 127

119 Philippus, Illustrium imagines LXXXVII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 128

120 Philippus II. ANS 1944.100.18423. American Numismatic Society 128

121 Traianus Decius, Illustrium imagines LXXXVII^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 129

122 Traianus Decius. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 129

123 Trebonianus Gallus, Illustrium imagines LXXXVIII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 129

124 Trebonianus Gallus. ANS 1944.100.27077. American Numismatic Society 129

125 Valerianus, Illustrium imagines LXXXVIII^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 130

126 Flavius Valerius Severus (Severus II). ANS 1944.100.1159. American Numismatic Society 130

127 Claudius, Illustrium imagines LXXXIX^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 132

128 Claudius II (Claudius Gothicus). © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 132

129 Quintillus, Illustrium imagines LXXXIX^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 133

130 Quintillus. ANS 1935.117.324. American Numismatic Society 133

131 Aurelianus, Illustrium imagines XC^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 134

132 Aurelianus. ANS 1948.19.937. American Numismatic Society 134

133 Tacitus, Illustrium imagines XC^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 135

134 Tacitus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 135

135 Florianus, Illustrium imagines XCI^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 136

136 Florianus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 136

137 Probus, Illustrium imagines XCI^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 136

138 Probus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 136

139 Carus, Illustrium imagines XCII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 136

140 Carus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 136

141 Numerianus, Illustrium imagines XCII^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 137

142 Numerianus. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved 137

143 Diocletianus, Illustrium imagines XCIII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 138

144 Diocletianus. ANS 1944.100.37991. American Numismatic Society 138

145 Maximianus, Illustrium imagines XCIII^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 139

146 Maximianus. ANS 1989.11.87. American Numismatic Society 139

147 Magnentius, Illustrium imagines XCIIII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 140

148 Magnentius. ANS 1944.100.20843. American Numismatic Society 140

149 Constantius (Chlorus), Illustrium imagines XCIIII^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 142

150 Constantius Chlorus. ANS 1984.146.1894. American Numismatic Society 143

151 Crispus, Illustrium imagines XCV^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 144

152 Crispus. © The Hunterian, University of Glasgow, 2018 144

153 Contantinus (I), Illustrium imagines XCV^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 145

154 Constantinopolis. ANS 1944.100.9350. American Numismatic Society 146

155 Constantinus (II), Illustrium imagines XCVI^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 146

156 Constantinus (I). ANS 1944.100.13447. American Numismatic Society 147

157 Constantius, Illustrium imagines XCVI^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 147

158 Constantius. ANS 1944.100.20930. American Numismatic Society 148

159 Constans, Illustrium imagines XCVII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 148

160 Constans. © The Hunterian, University of Glasgow, 2018 149

161 Iulianus, Illustrium imagines XCVII^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 149

162 Iulianus. © The Hunterian, University of Glasgow, 2018 149

163 Iovinianus, Illustrium imagines XCVIII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 150

164 Iovinianus. ANS 1992.45.24. American Numismatic Society 150

165 Valentinianus, Illustrium imagines XCVIII^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 151

166 Valentinianus. ANS 1994.123.145. American Numismatic Society 151

167 Valens, Illustrium imagines XCIX^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 152

168 Valens. © The Hunterian, University of Glasgow, 2018 152

169 Gratianus, Illustrium imagines XCIX^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 152

170 Gratianus. ANS 1944.100.25476. American Numismatic Society 153

171 Valentinianus (II), Illustrium imagines C^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 153

172 Valentinianus II. ANS 1944,100,25480. American Numismatic Society 154

173 Theodosius, Illustrium imagines C^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 156

174 Theodosius I. © The Hunterian, University of Glasgow, 2018 156

175 Valentinianus IIII, Illustrium imagines CI^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 157

176 Valentinianus III. © The Hunterian, University of Glasgow, 2018 157

177 Iustinianus, Illustrium imagines CIII^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 158

178 Iustinianus. ANS 1944.100.14940. American Numismatic Society 158

179 Constantinus III, Illustrium imagines CV^v. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 159

180 Constantinus I. ANS 1944.100.7388. American Numismatic Society 160

181 Maxentius, Illustrium imagines CVI^r. Bayerische Staatsbibliotek, Munich 160

182 Maxentius. © The Hunterian, University of Glasgow, 2018 162