Figures

0.1 Matthias Grünewald, Isenheim Altarpiece (closed state), c. 1510–15. Oil on wood. Chapel of the Hospital of Saint Anthony, Isenheim, Germany. Image in the Public Domain 16

0.2 Raphael, The Crucified Christ with the Virgin Mary, Saints and Angels, c. 1502–03. Oil on poplar. The National Gallery, London. Image in the Public Domain 17

0.3 North Wall, second half of sixteenth century. Fresco. Chapel of the Missionary Complex of San Nicolás de Tolentino, Actopan, Hidalgo, Mexico. Image in the Public Domain 20

0.4 Detail of “Torments of Hell,” North Wall, second half of sixteenth century. Fresco. Chapel of the Missionary Complex of San Nicolás de Tolentino, Actopan, Hidalgo, Mexico. Image in the Public Domain 20

1.1 Titian, Flaying of Marsyas, 1570–76. Oil on canvas. Olomouc Archbishopric — Archdiocesan Museum, Kroměříž. Erich Lessing / Art Resource, ny 39

1.2 Jusepe de Ribera, Apollo and Marsyas, 1637. Oil on canvas. Museo di Capodimonte, Naples. Scala / Ministero per i Beni e le Attività culturali / Art Resource, ny 44

2.1 Unknown artist, Schandmaske in the form of a bird, seventeenth century. Mittelalterliche Kriminalmuseum, Rothenburg ob der Tauber. Ingolstadt, Germany. Image in the Public Domain 68

2.2 Unknown artist, Schandmaske in the form of a pig, seventeenth century (?). Mittelalterliche Kriminalmuseum, Rothenburg ob der Tauber. Germany. Image in the Public Domain 69

2.3 Unknown artist, example of a “Scold’s Bridle,” sixteenth century. Scotland. Tom McGourty / Rossparry.co.uk. Image in the Public Domain 72

2.4 Unknown artist, Judensau, 1470. Woodblock print. Kupferstichkabinett, Munich, Germany. Image in the Public Domain 75

3.1 Giotto di Bondone, Lamentation, 1303–6. Fresco. Arena Chapel, Padua, Italy. Cameraphoto Arte, Venice / Art Resource, ny 83

3.2 Guido Mazzoni, Lamentation, 1480s. Painted terracotta. Church of the Gesù, Ferrara, Italy. Photograph by Heather Graham 90

3.3 Guido Mazzoni, Lamentation, detail of Mary Magdalen, 1480s. Painted terracotta. Church of the Gesù, Ferrara, Italy. Photograph by Heather Graham 97

3.4 Guido Mazzoni, Lamentation, detail of Mary Magdalen, upper body, 1480s. Painted terracotta. Church of the Gesù, Ferrara, Italy. Photograph by Heather Graham 97

3.5 Guido Mazzoni, Lamentation, detail of John the Evangelist, 1480s. Painted terracotta. Church of the Gesù, Ferrara, Italy. Photograph by Heather Graham 98

3.6 Guido Mazzoni, Lamentation, detail of John the Evangelist, upper body, 1480s. Painted terracotta. Church of the Gesù, Ferrara, Italy. Photograph by Heather Graham 98

3.7 Niccolò dell’Arca, Lamentation, c. 1463. Terracotta. Santa Maria della Vita, Bologna, Italy. Art Resource, ny 98

3.8 Sandro Botticelli, Lamentation, c. 1490. Tempera on panel. Church of San Paolino, Florence, Italy. Image in the Public Domain 107

3.9 Sandro Botticelli, Lamentation, c. 1495. Tempera on panel. Church of Santa Maria Maggiore, Florence, Italy. Image in the Public Domain 108

4.1 Philippe Thomassin, Madonna Immaculata, 1591. Engraving (later state). Biblioteca Casanatense (bc), Rome, Italy 130

4.2 Philippe Thomassin, detail of Madonna Immaculata, 1591. Engraving (later state). bc 131

4.3 Richard Verstegen, Plate No. 45, in Théâtre des cruautez des héréticques de nostre temps, 1588. Engraving. Bibliothèque Nationale de France (bnf), Paris, France 135

4.4 Mattheus Greuter and Paul Maupin, Portraits and Names of Those of the Society of Jesus Killed for Their Faith and Piety, 1549–1607 (Top), 1608. Engraving. bnf 136

4.5 Mattheus Greuter and Paul Maupin, Portraits and Names of Those of the Society of Jesus Killed for Their Faith and Piety, 1549–1607 (Left), 1608. Engraving. Bibliothèque royale de Belgique, Cabinet des Estampes (brbce), Brussels, Belgium 137

4.6 Mattheus Greuter and Paul Maupin, Portraits and Names of Those of the Society of Jesus Killed for Their Faith and Piety, 1549–1607 (Right), 1608, Engraving. brbce 138

4.7 Mattheus Greuter and Paul Maupin, detail of Portraits and Names of Those of the Society of Jesus Killed for Their Faith and Piety, 1549–1607 (Right), 1608. Engraving. brbce 141

4.8 Mattheus Greuter, detail of title page for Louis Richeôme, La peinture spirituelle, ou, l’art d’admirer, aimer et louer Dieu en toutes ses oeuvres, et tirer de toutes profit saluterre, 1611. Engraving. Biblioteca Angelica (ba), Rome, Italy 149

4.9 Mattheus Greuter, Martyrdom of St. Andrew, in Louis Richeôme, La peinture spirituelle, 1611. Engraving. ba 150

4.10 Mattheus Greuter, frontispiece for Christoph Scheiner, Pantographice, seu ars delineandi…, 1631. Engraving. ba 151

4.11 Mattheus Greuter, detail of frontispiece for Christoph Scheiner, Pantographice, 1631. Reproductive drawing of reliquary bust. Engraving. Rome, ba 152

4.12 Mattheus Greuter, detail of frontispiece for Christoph Scheiner, Pantographice, 1631. Reproductive drawing of Veronica veil relic. Engraving. Rome, ba 153

4.13 Philippe Thomassin, frontispiece for Cesare Baronio, Annales ecclesiastici…, 1593. Engraving. Biblioteca Vallicelliana, Rome, Italy 154

5.1 Antonello da Messina, Ecce Homo, c. 1460–65. Oil and tempera on wood. Private Collection, New York. Courtesy of a ‘private collection’; all rights reserved 170

5.2 Antonello da Messina, Ecce Homo, 1470. Oil on poplar. Galleria Nazionale di Palazzo Spinola, Genoa, Italy. Scala / Ministero per i Beni e le Attività culturali / Art Resource, ny 171

5.3 Antonello da Messina, Ecce Homo, c. 1473. Oil and tempera on poplar. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. The Friedsam Collection, Bequest of Michael Friedsam, 1931. Image in the Public Domain 174

5.4 Antonello da Messina, Ecce Homo (lost), 1474. Oil on wood. Ostrowski Collection, Vienna, Austria. khm-Museumsverband 175

5.5 Antonello da Messina, Ecce Homo, 1475. Oil on wood. Collegio Alberoni, Piacenza. Scala / Art Resource, ny 176

5.6 Antonello da Messina, Ecce Homo (lost), 1470s. Oil on wood, Museo Civico, Novara, Italy 177

5.7 Antonello da Messina, Portrait of a Man, 1469(?). Oil on wood. Museo della Fondazione Culturale Mandralisca, Cefalu, Sicily, Italy. Alfredo Dagli Orti / Art Resource, ny 178

5.8 Master of Valdarno, Crucifix, 1325. Tempera on wood. Church of Santi Giovanni Evangelista e Stefano, Montopoli, Pisa, Italy. Image in the Public Domain 185

5.9 Coppo di Marcovaldo, Crucifix, c. 1260. Tempera on wood. Palazzo Comunale, San Gimignano, Italy. hip / Art Resource, ny 187

5.10 Antonello da Messina, Penitent St. Jerome (verso of Ecce Homo), c. 1460–65. Oil and tempera on wood. Courtesy of a ‘private collection’; all rights reserved 197

5.11 Niccolò Antonio Colantonio, St. Jerome in His Study, 1440s. Oil on panel. Museo Nazionale di Capodimonte, Naples, Italy. Scala / Ministero per i Beni e le Attività culturali / Art Resource, ny 198

5.12 Antonello da Messina, Ecce Homo (recto), 1465. Oil and tempera on wood. Museo Regionale di Messina, Messina, Italy. Photo: Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei Beni Culturali e della Identità siciliana — Dipanimenro dei Beni Culturali e della Identità siciliana — Polo Regionale di Messina per i Sili Culturali — Museo interdisciplinare di Messina 200

5.13 Antonello da Messina, Madonna and Child with St. Francis in Adoration (verso?), 1465. Oil and tempera on wood. Museo Regionale di Messina, Messina, Italy. Photo: Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei Beni Culturali e della Identità siciliana — Dipanimenro dei Beni Culturali e della Identità siciliana — Polo Regionale di Messina per i Sili Culturali —Museo interdisciplinare di Messina 200

6.1 Unknown artist(s), The Stoning of St. Francis, 1668–1684. Oil on canvas. Produced in Cusco for the Church and Missionary Complex of San Francisco, Santiago de Chile. Reproduced with permission of the Museo de Arte Colonial de San Francisco 207

6.2 Fountain in main plaza, 1651. Lima, Peru. Photograph by Catherine Burdick 208

6.3 Albrecht Dürer, Christ Nailed to the Cross, 1511. Woodcut on laid paper. Image in the public domain, photograph provided by the Brooklyn Museum 213

6.4 Giovanni di Paolo, Christ on the Way to Calvary, 1426. Tempera and gold leaf on panel. Siena, Italy. Image in the public domain, photograph provided by The Walters Art Museum 221

6.5 Giotto di Bondone, St. Francis Renouncing his Worldly Goods, 1325. Fresco. Bardi Chapel, Santa Croce, Florence, Italy. Image in the public domain, photograph provided by Scala Archives 222

6.6 Crispijn van de Passe (I), after Maerten de Vos, Stoning of the Elders, 1574–1637. Engraving. Image in the public domain, photograph provided by the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam 226

6.7 Inka stonework at Sacsayhuaman, expansion begun in fifteenth century. Cusco, Peru. Photograph by Catherine Burdick 227

6.8 Pedro Cieza de León, “Indians worshipping a stone as a god,” from Crónica general del Perú, 1553, fol. 63r. Image in the public domain, photograph provided by the Library of Congress 228

7.1 Franciscan portrait gallery, Museo de Guadalupe Zacatecas, ex-College of Propaganda Fide of Guadalupe, Zacatecas, Mexico. Photograph by Emmanuel Ortega 235

7.2 Diego Sanabria, Retrato de Fray Francisco Casañas de Jesus, mid-eighteenth century. Oil on canvas. Reproduction authorized by the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (inah) 236

7.3 Unknown artist, Fray Francisco de Arvide, mid-eighteenth century. Oil on canvas. Church of San Francisco, Puebla, Mexico. Reproduction authorized by the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (inah). Photograph by Emmanuel Ortega 238

7.4 Unknown artist, Virgen de la Macana, mid-to-late eighteenth century. Oil on canvas. Courtesy of the New Mexico History Museum. Photograph by Blair Clark 239

7.5 Miguel Cabrera, Indios Gentiles, 1763. Oil on canvas. Courtesy of Museo de América, Madrid 257

8.1 Unknown artist, “Saint Catherine,” c. 1600. Engraving. Pasted-in print on folio 2 recto of Gebedenboek Ruusbroeckgenootschap hs 452, c. 1600. Antwerp, Ruusbroec Institute Library, hs 452 268

8.2 Adriaen Collaert, “Annunciation (Mystery of the Incarnation),” from Virginis Mariae vita, c. 1590. Engraving. Pasted-in print on folio of 33 recto of Gebedenboek Ruusbroeckgenootschap hs 452, c. 1600. Antwerp, Ruusbroec Institute Library, hs 452 271

8.3 Adriaen Collaert, “Nativity,” from Virginis Mariae vita, c. 1590. Engraving. Pasted-in print on folio 61 recto of Gebedenboek Ruusbroeckgenootschap hs 452, c. 1600. Antwerp, Ruusbroec Institute Library, hs 452 272

8.4 Adriaen Collaert, “Flight into Egypt,” from Virginis Mariae vita, c. 1590. Engraving. Pasted-in print on folio 101 recto of Gebedenboek Ruusbroeckgenootschap hs 452, c. 1600. Antwerp, Ruusbroec Institute Library, hs 452 273

8.5 Hieronymus Wierix, “Mary Praying by the Bedside of the Infant Jesus,” c. 1590–1600. Engraving. Pasted-in print on folio 72 recto of Gebedenboek Ruusbroeckgenootschap hs 452, c. 1600. Antwerp, Ruusbroec Institute Library, hs 452 274

8.6 Hieronymus Wierix, “Boy Jesus Carrying the Cross,” c. 1590–1600. Engraving, gilt and colored. Pasted-in print on folio 130 recto of Gebedenboek Ruusbroeckgenootschap hs 452. Antwerp, Ruusbroec Institute Library, hs 452, c. 1600 275

8.7 Unknown artist, “Saint Barbara,” c. 1600. Engraving. Pasted-in print on folio 8 recto of Gebedenboek Ruusbroeckgenootschap hs 452, c. 1600. Antwerp, Ruusbroec Institute Library, hs 452 276

8.8 Blank on folio 127 recto of Gebedenboek Ruusbroeckgenootschap hs 452, c. 1600. Missing print by Adriaen Collaert, “Assumption of the Virgin,” c. 1590. From Virginis Mariae vita, c. 1590. Antwerp, Ruusbroec Institute Library, hs 452 281

8.9 Adriaen Collaert, “Virgin and Child Seated within a Garland of Thorny Roses,” c. 1590–1600. Engraving. Pasted-in print on folio 85 recto of Gebedenboek Ruusbroeckgenootschap hs 452, c. 1600. Antwerp, Ruusbroec Institute Library, hs 452 283

8.10 Adriaen Collaert, “Visitation,” from Virginis Mariae vita, c. 1590. Engraving. Pasted-in print on folio 40 recto of Gebedenboek Ruusbroeckgenootschap hs 452, c. 1600. Antwerp, Ruusbroec Institute Library, hs 452 285

8.11 Adriaen Collaert, “Mystery of the Immaculate Conception,” c. 1590–1600. Engraving. Pasted-in print on folio 20 recto of Gebedenboek Ruusbroeckgenootschap hs 452, c. 1600. Antwerp, Ruusbroec Institute Library, hs. 452 291

8.12 Adriaen Collaert, “Adoration of the Magi,” from Virginis Mariae vita, c. 1590. Engraving. Pasted-in print on folio 89 recto of Gebedenboek Ruusbroeckgenootschap hs 452, c. 1600. Antwerp, Ruusbroec Institute Library, hs. 452 294

8.13 Hieronymus Wierix, “Virgin of Sorrows,” c. 1590. Engraving. Pasted-in print on folio 120 recto of Gebedenboek Ruusbroeckgenootschap hs 452, c. 1600. Antwerp, Ruusbroec Institute Library, hs. 452 295

8.14 Adriaen Collaert, “Mary and Joseph Discover Christ amongst the Doctors,” from Virginis Mariae vita, c. 1590. Engraving. Pasted-in print on folio 106 recto of Gebedenboek Ruusbroeckgenootschap hs 452, c. 1600. Antwerp, Ruusbroec Institute Library, hs. 452 301

8.15 Adriaen Collaert, “Death of the Virgin,” from Virginis Mariae vita, c. 1590. Engraving. Pasted-in print on folio 111 recto of Gebedenboek Ruusbroeckgenootschap hs 452, c. 1600. Antwerp, Ruusbroec Institute Library, hs. 452 303

8.16 Adriaen Collaert, “Presentation in the Temple,” from Virginis Mariae vita, c. 1590. Engraving. Pasted-in print on folio 97 recto of Gebedenboek Ruusbroeckgenootschap hs 452, c. 1600. Antwerp, Ruusbroec Institute Library, hs. 452 304

9.1 Andrés López, The Divine Spouse Wounded by Love, eighteenth century. Oil on canvas. Denver Art Museum Collection: Gift of the Collection of Frederick and Jan Mayer, 2013:385. Photo Credit: Courtesy of Denver Art Museum 315

9.2 Jóse de Ibarra, Christ in the Garden of Delights, c. 1738. Oil on canvas. Museo Nacional del Virreinato, Tepotzotlán 323

9.3 Juan Correa, The Conversion of Mary Magdalene, c. 1680. Oil on canvas. Museo Nacional del Arte, Mexico City. Image in the Public Domain 326

9.4 Miguel Cabrera, Divine Pastor, eighteenth century. Oil on canvas. Museo Nacional del Virreinato, Tepotzotlán 329

9.5 “Ecstasies of the Enamored Soul,” Book iii, Suspirium ii. Print in Pedro de Salas, Afectos divinos con emblemas sagradas, 1638–58. Image in the Public Domain 332

9.6 Unknown artist, Los desposorios místicos, eighteenth century. Oil on canvas. Museo Nacional del Virreinato, Tepotzotlán 336

9.7 Francisco Martínez, The Soul Led by Christ, eighteenth century. Oil on canvas. Colección Fundación Cultural Daniel Liebsohn a.c. Photographic Archive of fcdl a.c. 349

10.1 Unknown artist, “[vr] de la prodigiosa Imagen del Smo. Christo de los desagra[vios],” from Theodoro de Almeida, Tesoro de paciencia, late eighteenth century. Print. Courtesy of William B. Taylor. Book now located at The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley 359

10.2 Unknown artist, Santo Cristo de los Desagravios, seventeenth century. Hospital de Jesús, Mexico City, Mexico. Photograph by Derek Burdette, 2011 373

11.1 Gregorio Fernández, Cristo yacente (Dead Christ), 1625–30. Polychromed wood, glass, bark, and ivory or bone. Museo National del Prado, Madrid, Spain 384

11.2 Andreas Vesalius, “Prima Sexti Libri, Figura,” from De humani corporis fabrica libri septem, (Basel, 1543), page 559. Woodcut. Courtesy of the u.s. National Library of Medicine, Washington, d. c. 395

11.3 Gregor Reisch, “Illustration depicting the internal organs of a dissected man, including heart, lungs, stomach, spleen, intestines, kidneys, and bladder, labelled in Latin,” from Margarita philosophica, 1503. Woodcut. King’s College London, Foyle Special Collections Library, London, England 396

11.4 Nicolas Beatrizet after Gaspar Beccera, “Tavola delle Figure del Libro iii,” from Juan Valverde de Amusco’s Anatomia del corpo humano (Rome, 1560), page 108. Engraving. Courtesy of the u.s. National Library of Medicine, Washington dc 399

11.5 Procession of the Cristo yacente during Holy Week, 2009. Photograph. Chema Concellón, Valladolid, Spain 406

11.6 Francisco de Goya, Procesión de disciplinantes, 1812–1819. Oil on panel. Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, Madrid, Spain 409

11.7 Procession of the Cristo yacente during Holy Week, 2010. Photograph. Chema Concellón, Valladolid, Spain 411

Tables

5.1 Antonello da Messina’s Ecce Homo Paintings 181

5.2 Antonello da Messina’s Chronology 195