6. Liaoning 辽宁
Land area: 145,900 km2
Population: 43,746,323
Capital: Shenyang 沈阳
Topography
Liaoning is the southernmost province in northeast China, facing North Korea across the Yalu River 鸭绿江. The province consists of 14 prefectures, including 59 urban districts, 16 county-level cities, and 25 counties. Among its total population of 43.7 million, ethnic minorities make up a little over 15 percent. The major ethnic minorities are Manchu, Mongol, Hui, and Korean 朝鲜族.
The terrain of Liaoning is high in the west and east and low in the central area and southern peninsula (Map 41). The flat and low-lying Northeast Plain 东北平原 dominates the middle region, with the Changbai Mountains 长白山 to the east. The Liaodong Peninsula 辽东半岛 is situated between the Bo Sea 渤海 and the Yellow Sea 黄海 and is surrounded by islands.
Liaoning has the largest provincial economy of Northeast China. The province has been involved in industrial development since the 1890s, with a focus on heavy industry and raw materials. Anshan 鞍山 is one of the largest iron and steel bases in China. On the southern coast, Dalian 大连 is one of the most developed cities in the province and a financial, shipping, and logistics center in northern China.
Demography
Some key demographic factors changed in Liaoning between 2000 and 2010. The percentage of urban residents rose from 45.9 percent to 50.8 percent. There has been a significant rise in the number of people with a college education. In 2000, in most counties less than 5 percent of residents had a college education, but by 2010 the number of college graduates had doubled in most counties. In 2000, there was not a single county where the ratio of university graduates exceeded 20 percent, but by 2010 many of the metropolitan areas had surpassed this number.
In terms of family structure, the percentage of one- generation households increased substantially throughout the province. In 2000, 10 to 30 percent of the households in most counties comprised a single generation, and in no county was the proportion above 40 percent (Map 42). However, by 2010 one-generation households formed more than 30 percent of families in the majority of counties (Map 43). In a few urban areas, the proportion was more than 40 percent. This may be due to the strict implementation of the one-child policy, which was in effect until 2016. Under that policy, employees of state-owned enterprises or government agencies would be fired if they violated the one-child policy. Therefore, employees in the public sector conformed to the one-child policy more often than those working in the private sector or farmers. In Liaoning, state companies have employed a large proportion of the local labor force, and thus the policy has been more rigorously enforced in this province.1
Liaoning: One-generation households in 2000.
Liaoning: One-generation households in 2010.
Key Religious Facts
The religious landscape of Liaoning shows a predominance of Protestant churches in most of the prefectures except Chaoyang Prefecture 朝阳市 in the west, which has some concentration of Buddhist temples (Map 44 and Figure 14). Catholic churches and Islamic mosques are located mostly in the central prefectures, with a few Daoist temples scattered around. Most of the Muslim population in Liaoning resides in Shenyang (Photo 16). In addition to the five legally permitted religions, Liaoning people engage in various forms of folk religion that originated in Mongolia and Korea, which share a border with the province.
Liaoning: Distribution of religious sites by prefecture.
Muslims celebrate the holiday of Eid al-Fitr, which marks the end of the month-long fast during the month of Ramadan, at Shenyang’s South Mosque.
Credit: Lei Yang
Liaoning has the largest population of Manchu people in China, who mainly dwell in Kuandian Manchu Autonomous County 宽甸满族自治县 in eastern Dandong Prefecture 丹东市, a region that borders North Korea. Since the 1980s, ethnic minorities have gained much more room for self-expression and there have been many attempts to restore Manchurian ethnic culture, including establishing Manchu-language schools and reviving Manchu rituals. Many obsolete cultural attributes that are significant for legitimizing an ethnic group in China have been adapted by the group to reinforce the previously weakened Manchu identity. For instance, in 2015, Shenyang Music Conservatory established the first music program in the province-level intangible cultural heritage project and conducted fieldwork in Kuandian to observe Manchurian shamanic rituals. The use of certain mystical numbers is a noted feature of Manchu shamanic ritual and plays an important role in structuring musical patterns and musical performances in correspondence with cultural patterns and behavior.2 The rediscovery of these numbers represents an institutional effort to highlight ethnic distinctions and to compete for cultural and social resources.
Protestant churches have reopened since 1979 under the TSPM, and many house churches have also emerged. Meanwhile, many heretical sects, labeled by the party-state as “evil cults,” remain underground in the countryside. One of these is the Disciples Sect (Mentu hui 门徒会), introduced into Liaoning in the 1990s, which has spread mainly in the rural areas. In 2016, the Liaoning government published a series of articles in the local evening newspaper that referred to the teachings of Mentuhui as “brainwashing” and urged people to recognize the harmful nature of this organization and prevent anyone from believing in this “evil cult.”3
The history of the Catholic Church in Liaoning predates the founding of the PRC. In 1957, a bishop from Liaoning was elected as the chairman of the CCPA. It is estimated that the number of Catholics in the province was about 100,000 in 2000.4 Moreover, Tibetan Buddhism, which entered the province several centuries ago, is still being practiced today. The largest Tibetan Buddhist monastery in Liaoning, Duanying Temple 端应寺, known as Gegen Sume 葛根苏木 among Mongols, was built in the seventeenth century. Located in Fuxin Mongolian Autonomous County 阜新蒙古族自治县 in Fuxin Prefecture in northwest, this monastery holds regular religious activities and is adjusting its services to accommodate Han Buddhists.5
7. Jilin 吉林
Land area: 187,400 km2
Population: 27,452,815
Capital: Changchun 长春
Topography
Jilin lies in the central part of northeast China and consists of 9 prefectures, including 21 urban districts, 20 county-level cities, and 19 counties. Ethnic minorities account for almost 8 percent of the total population, which includes a large number of Koreans. Indeed, over half of China’s entire Korean population reside in the province. The western part of Jilin is part of the Northeast China Plain and is home to the province’s agricultural sector. Jilin is a major producer of various grains such as rice, corn, and sorghum. The provincial capital, Changchun, is located on the edge of the plain and is surrounded by the Dahei Mountains 大黑山. Changchun and its surrounding areas are highly industrialized. Changchun is one of China’s largest automobile manufacturing bases.
The terrain south and southeast of Changchun is quite treacherous and includes several mountains, among which are the Changbai Mountains extending from west to east (Map 45). The Yalu River separates Jilin from North Korea. Jilin features long, cold winters with temperatures averaging −17°C in January. The rivers are frozen for about five months of the year.
Demography
Most of Jilin’s population is evenly distributed across the central and western parts of the province, with higher concentrations in Changchun and Siping 四平 than in other cities. Fewer people live in the northeastern area, especially near the Changbai Mountains. The total population in Jilin rose to 27,452,815 in 2010, a small 2.4 percent increase from 10 years earlier. The number of people immigrating from other provinces decreased significantly in this period, from 635,675 to 456,499. In fact, the slow population growth and the decrease in immigration reflect the deepening economic regression in Jilin along with the other two northeastern provinces, Liaoning and Heilongjiang. These provinces were heavy industrial bases in the period of the central planning economy but have encountered severe difficulties in the transition toward a market economy.6 It is widely reported in Chinese news media that people, especially the younger generations, have moved away to look for better job opportunities.7
Similar to the other northeastern provinces, Jilin shows the characteristics of an industrial society. First, the number of people with a college degree doubled from 1,321,871 in 2000 to 2,715,172 a decade later. Meanwhile, the proportion of elderly people increased significantly from 9.4 percent in 2000 to 13.2 percent in 2010 (Maps 46–47). In 2000, the percentage of elderly people in most counties was between 8 to 12 percent of the total population, rising to 12 to 16 percent in 2010. The number of elderly people was quite low in parts of northern Jilin, most notably in counties in the Songyuan 松原 prefecture. Only a few counties near the border had an elderly population greater than 12 percent. In some southern counties such as Yanji 延吉 and Helong 和龙, more than 16 percent of local people were more than 60 years old. The average family size in Jilin has been shrinking in recent years, decreasing from 3.3 persons to 2.9 between 2000 and 2010.
Key Religious Facts
Protestant churches are predominant in Jilin and are especially concentrated in its central and eastern prefectures (Map 48 and Figure 15). Buddhist temples, Catholic churches, and Islamic mosques are scattered around in the province, with a very few Daoist sites here and there. According to other information provided by the provincial religious bureau, currently about 856,000 people are Buddhist believers, most of whom are followers of Chan and Pure Land traditions; the number of Daoist believers is much smaller, a little more than 100,000. The Catholic population is around 67,000, and the registered Protestant churches have 768,000 members.8
Jilin: Distribution of religious sites by prefecture.
Jilin’s close proximity to North Korea has caused tensions with regard to religious communities. In May 2016, the body of a Chinese priest who had provided assistance to North Korean defectors was found near the Jilin–North Korea border. Human rights groups argued that secret agents from North Korea were likely responsible for the priest’s death. The priest, Han Choong-ryul 韩忠烈, was a Chinese citizen of ethnic Korean origin. He had served as a priest at Changbai Church 长白教会 and was well known as a supporter of North Korean defectors once they reached the border.9 In 2017, more than 60 South Korean Christians in Jilin were expelled from China after they were found by local governments to be helping North Korean defectors. Local officials claimed that these expelled Christians were engaged in illegal religious activities, whereas one of these expelled missionaries argued that it was their contact with the defectors that precipitated their expelling.10 According to the 2008 report of the U.S. Congressional-Executive Commission on China,11 the central government ordered provincial religious affairs bureaus to investigate religious communities for signs of involvement with foreigners. Those churches in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture 延边朝鲜族自治州 in Jilin province that were found to have ties to South Koreans or other foreign nationals were shut down.
Jilin is one of the most ethnically diverse provinces in China, as evidenced by the provincial government’s sanctioning of folk religions, most notably shamanistic temples.12 In 2006, the first Shaman Museum 萨满文化博物馆 opened in Changchun.13 There are two ways to become a shaman in Jilin. One is by divine choosing, the other by clan selection. Shamanism in Jilin is growing and thriving as part of the local heritage.14
8. Heilongjiang 黑龙江
Land area: 454,000 km2
Population: 38,313,991
Capital: Harbin 哈尔滨
Topography
Heilongjiang is the northernmost province of China. It takes its name from the Heilong Jiang 黑龙江 [Black Dragon River], which is also known as the Amur River. The Heilong River and the Ussuri River 乌苏里江 form the border between Heilongjiang and Russia. The province is divided into 13 prefectures, including 65 urban districts, 19 county-level cities, and 44 counties. Ethnic minorities comprise 3.5 percent of the total population, including several ethnic groups that originated in this area: Daur 达斡尔族, Xibe 锡伯族, Oroqen 鄂伦春族, Hezhe 赫哲族.
Heilongjiang is a land of varied topography (Map 49). The central part is dominated by the Greater and Lesser Khingan Range 大小兴安岭. The western part of the province is part of the Northeast China Plain and has a low and flat terrain. Heilongjiang is rich in water resources. Major rivers include the Nen River 嫩江 and the Songhua River 松花江, which run across the province from south to north. Winters in Heilongjiang are long and bitterly cold, lasting five to eight months with average temperatures of −31°C to −15°C in January. Summers are short and warm, with average temperatures of 18°C to 23°C in July. Lying on the famous “black soil zone,” Heilongjiang is China’s largest soybean producer and one of the most important grain production centers. Heilongjiang is also rich in mineral resources and contains China’s largest oil field, Daqing Oil Field 大庆油田. Much of Heilongjiang’s industry is based on petrochemicals and equipment manufacturing.
Demography
Heilongjiang’s population is not evenly distributed. More people live in the southern part of the province, either near the provincial capital, Harbin, or near other major cities like Daqing 大庆 and Mudanjiang 牡丹江. The total population of the province rose slightly from 36,237,576 in 2000 to 38,313,991 in 2010, a 5.7 percent increase. In the meantime, the size of the immigrant population decreased dramatically from 1,407,081 to 506,397 over the same period, suggesting that Heilongjiang has become less attractive to immigrants.
From 2000 to 2010, the number of people who received at least a college education doubled from 1.7 million to 3.5 million (Maps 50–51). The percentage of urban residents increased from 46.8 percent to 49.3 percent during this decade. The proportion of elderly people in Heilongjiang is on the rise; people aged 60 or older increased from 9 percent of the population in 2000 to 13 percent in 2010. The sex ratio deceased from 104.5 males per 100 females in 2000 to 102.9 in 2010. Heilongjiang is one of the provinces whose sex ratio was close to normal.15
The average family size has become smaller. In 2000, the average family size in most counties was greater than three persons. Only in the counties of Yichun 宜春 and Daxinganling 大兴安岭 did the number drop below three. In 2010, a number of counties in the southern cities still had an average family size above three, but in most counties, in the middle and northern areas, the average dropped below three.
Key Religious Facts
The religious landscape of Heilongjiang shows a predominance of Protestant churches, especially concentrated in Harbin, Qitaihe 七台河, and Jixi 鸡西 prefectures, but also along the Heilongjiang River and border (Map 52 and Figure 16). There are good numbers of Catholic churches in Qiqihar 齐齐哈尔, the southwestern area of Heihe, and the southeast area of Mudanjiang. Islamic mosques and Buddhist temples are scattered around the whole province, with a few Daoist temples here and there.
Heilongjiang: Distribution of religious sites by prefecture.
Heilongjiang’s common border with Russia makes it a strategic region for transnational connectivity—not only political and economic, but also religious. The Sino-Russian wars in the seventeenth century during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) resulted in territorial concessions to Russia as well as Russian cultural influence. Harbin features much neo-classical architecture and is a center of Orthodox Christianity. The Peking Church Mission, the earliest foreign mission organized by the Russian state, spread Orthodox Christianity to China and Mongolia and made an important contribution to the establishment of Sino-Russian diplomatic relations.16
Although relations were interrupted during the Communist Revolution, the mutual interest between China and Russia has prompted a renewal of religious-diplomatic ties. In May 2013, His Holiness Patriarch Kirill of Moscow and All Russia visited China for the first time and met with Chinese president Xi Jinping. He also met with Wang Zuoan 王作安, director of China’s State Administration of Religious Affairs, who held a reception in honor of the primate of the Russian Orthodox Church.17 Later, Patriarch Kirill visited Heilongjiang, where he met with the vice governor of the province, Sun Yongbo 孙永波, and celebrated the Divine Liturgy at the Church of the Protection of the Mother of God in Harbin 哈尔滨圣母帡幪教堂. This was a remarkable move, as Orthodoxy is not yet an officially sanctioned religion in China at the national level. At the meeting it was agreed that two Chinese Orthodox monks would travel to Russia to prepare for ordination and then return to China to serve the church. Patriarch Kirill stated that his China visit was aimed at “further strengthening the friendly relations between China and Russia.”18 The timing of this visit was interesting, as less than two months earlier President Xi had paid a visit to Russia, during which Russian president Vladimir Putin remarked that they were working together to shape a new, more just world order, ensure peace and security, and defend basic principles of international law.19 This cooperation was best symbolized by the 2015 ordination of Shi Yu 施余, a former banker who studied in a seminary in Russia. He became the first Chinese priest ordained by the Russian Orthodox Church to be given official standing in China, and was appointed to serve the Church of the Protection of the Mother of God in Harbin.20
Caixin Media, “Hard Choices for Family Planners and Parents”; Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, “China: The ‘One Child Policy’ in Liaoning province (1982–November 2002).”
L. Li, “Mystical Numbers and Manchu Traditional Music.”
Liaoning Pindao, “The Disciple Sect Is Deceptive”; Kaifengliaoning, “Still Haunting—Be Alert to the Disciple Sect”; Liaoning Pindao, “A Way to Save the Followers of the Disciple Sect.”
Liu and Leung, “Organizational Revivalism.”
Erhimbayar, “Mongolian Buddhist Monasteries in Present-day Northeastern China.”
J. Zhang, “The Transformation of the Chinese Economy”; Economist, “The North-East Back in the Cold.”
X. Sun, “Population Decline in Northeast China.”
Jilin Religious Bureau, “Ethnic Groups in Jilin.”
Guyjoco, “Chinese Priest Who Supported North Korean Defectors Found Dead.”
Farley, “Christians Expelled from China for Helping North Korean Defectors.”
Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 2008 Annual Report.
Z. Zhang, Magic in China.
Xinhuanet, “A Shaman Museum Founded.”
Xinhuanet, “A Young Heir to a Shaman.”
S. Li et al., “Imbalanced Sex Ratio at Birth and Female Child Survival in China,” 28; Lai, “Sex Ratio at Birth and Infant Mortality Rate in China.”
Maiyer, “Russian Orthodox Missions to the East.”
Russian Orthodox Church, “His Holiness Patriarch Kirill Completes His Visit To China.”
Z. Yu, “Orthodox Church Sees Opportunities in China.”
Z. Yu, “Orthodox Church Sees Opportunities in China.”
Z. Yu, “Orthodox Church Sees Opportunities in China.”