As an historian of ancient Greek and Roman culture, I was originally not particularly interested in the period of early Christianity. I equated the entire two millennia of the Christian faith with the conservative and insular religion of my youth in my birthplace in the sixties. The Catholic schools which I and my brothers and sisters attended provided excellent education yet with a dose of ‘inflexible indoctrination’ (as I saw it). If Christianity from the recent past—namely the fifties and sixties—was not able to inspire me, think of how uncomely Christianity must have been in the first few centuries of its existence! Yet piecemeal discoveries slowly but surely unraveled these prejudices.
During my studies for the degree of Master in Ancient History at the VU University in Amsterdam, it was at my courses on Ancient Philosophy with Prof. A.P. (Bram) Bos where I heard for the first time about the Greek philosophical influence on Christian authors in late antiquity. Prof. Bos’ enthusiasm for discovering parallels in Greek philosophical concepts in the Old and New Testament, Greek mythology and other ancient texts was contagious and eventually awakened in me a fascination for the roots of Christianity.
I learned of the debates in antiquity among prominent Christian intellectuals about matters which in my youth were taught as completely settled and absolute truth. I learned about the Greek philosophical concepts in the arguments of both Christian debaters, which in itself, on another level, were the butt of even more complex contemporary debates between patristic scholars, theologians and experts in ancient philosophy. I eagerly stepped in.
Enticed by the depth and complexity of Augustine’s and the Neo-Platonist Plotinus’ thought, it began to dawn on me that self-reflection and delving into the abysses of our minds could actually pertain to religious experience and with no exception, to being a Christian. In the ancient period, philosophizing and religious devotion went hand-in-hand.
The focus of these two thinkers on the highest region of the soul, the intellect, as exclusively having an intrinsically strong connection to the divine, is not something we would likely hear today in liturgy or sermons. This notion has been criticized for throwing the consideration for the human being as a whole out of proportion. Such a notion would be more at home, for example, in modern-day Western Buddhism, meditation, in the genre Esoterica or even nineteenth century Romantic philosophy. Following the example of other church fathers, Augustine integrated this element from Plotinus’ Platonism into his conception of universal truth embodied in Christ’s Incarnation. Yet his assimilation far surpassed that of his Christian predecessors.
Reading Augustine made me realize that our personal understanding of our individual existence derives from borrowing notions from almost everyone with whom we come into contact, including the thought provoking books we enjoyed reading but also from those persons and publications for which we acquired disdain; even if this assimilation mechanism is to some degree unconscious. Augustine did a great service to us by relaying his personal history of his intellectual maturation, of how he passed through various ideologies, such as Manichaeism, astrology, Skepticism and different brands of Platonism, all of which prepared him for embracing Christian faith. This phase of his life is something which, I believe, many people today searching for truth can identify with. All these ideologies left a mark in his thinking, just as Augustine has left a mark on mine and most of the Augustinian researchers I am acquainted with.
Plotinus’ philosophy was not only an eye opener for Augustine, but also for me. This ‘philosopher of transcendence’ par excellence was devoted to scientific contemplation of matters which are normally beyond the grasp of the human mind. As Augustine mentioned, Platonist ideals were only a few steps away from the same faith which many Christians in Augustine’s day professed. Would such a claim be feasible today?
My first engagement with Augustine involved an exploration of his Christology, his doctrine of the Word of God, Verbum Dei, based upon John 1:1–5, comparing it to the conception of the Logos of Plotinus—which became the topic of my Master’s thesis. However its completion left me with a sense of incompleteness, realizing that I had only scratched the surface of both Augustine’s and Plotinus’ thinking.
A doctoral thesis was the next step, which afforded a welcome expansion of this terrain and an intensification of the original groundwork, with much more time to concentrate on challenging primary sources, such as Augustine’s The Literal Meaning of Genesis and The Trinity, as well as less familiar treatises in Plotinus’ Enneads. A dissertation allowed me to focus on an astonishing common element which demanded much space for substantiation: the notion of the human mind as an image of God or of the Godhead.
My dissertation, as well as this present monograph (which is based upon the latter), carries the mark of the instruction of Prof. Bos: the deep probing into ancient texts and questioning the meaning of difficult passages. It reflects as well the broad expertise on Augustine’s theology of Prof. Paul van Geest, at the Tilburg University School of Catholic Theology, who communicated to no small degree his enthusiasm for Augustine, while encouraging me to develop my own standpoint. Prof. van Geest, as the director of The Netherlands’ Centre of Patristic Research (CPO), also provided me as a doctoral student with ample opportunities for personal growth, such as speaking at academic conferences in Utrecht, Oxford and those of the Patristische Arbeitsgemeinschaft, all of which greatly enriched my knowledge of Augustine. Many fellow researchers affiliated with the CPO and also De Landelijke Werkgroep voor de Gnostiek (Dutch Gnostic Studies), assisted me as well by discussing the material at different phases of my research. My thanks as well to Prof. Rudi te Velde at the Tilburg University School of Catholic Theology, who was willing to be my sparring partner on ensuing issues in ancient philosophy, as well as aiding me in furthering my knowledge of Plotinus and Augustine.
The completion of this study would not have been possible without the many memorable visits to the libraries of Augustinian institutes in Rome, Heverlee, Belgium and Eindhoven, in the Netherlands; the friendly assistance of the librarians, the generous hospitality of the Augustinian monastery in Heverlee; as well as the amicable encouragement of Prof. Anthony Dupont at the Faculty of Theology and Religious Studies at the Katholieke Universiteit in Leuven. Dr. Martijn Schrama OSA of the Augustinian Institute in Utrecht was particularly helpful by offering dialogue on Augustine’s Christology and other themes, especially from this church father’s sermons and letters. I am also especially grateful to Dr. Piet Hein Hupsch for checking the Greek texts and giving me advice.
In all phases of my research, the assistance of my husband Martin was indispensable. My gratitude is inexpressible for his resolving at record speed all kinds of computer fiascos, for his offering much sound advice on layout and design, and for generally applauding me for my creative endeavors.