Index
ablative case
291
context-specific uses of
291–292
in anterior subordination
578–582
in comparative and superlative degrees
291, 302–303
modifying demonstratives
124–125, 326
modifying locative adverbs
327–329
absolutive case
269–271
and case marking
146, 261–269
as citation form
269
of personal pronouns
107
accompanying suffix
306
action noun
245–246, 251–253, 475, 605–607
active / agentive case marking
262
actor involvement
144–145
and intransitive verbs
148–149
and motion verbs
148–149
and transitive verbs
148–149
and verbal morphology
144–145
additional conjunction
600
additive focus clitic
663–665
adhortative
545
adjective
118–122, 170–171, 246–250
ascribing an attribute or the lack thereof
248
comparative
322–325
derived from verbs
119
describing a state
120, 247, 249
describing an attribute
120, 248
describing negative attribution
120, 248
describing the outcome of a process
247
determinative
115, 311
from serial verb constructions
120, 249, 447, 468, 504
from imperfectives (adverbialised)
121, 562, 566
gender
295–296
homophony with perfective in -ba nom
245–246
irregular roots of
122
native
119, 121, 170–171
negative
120, 250
position in noun phrase
260
roots of
122, 301–302
unspecific
325
used as adverbs
130, 216–217, 321
used as (pro-) nouns
321
with nominaliser -ba nom
119, 120, 246
with agent nominaliser -kʰen agn
119–121, 236–237
adverbs
127–130, 171–177, 557–558
as discourse connector
618
borrowed
127, 171
categories of
127
imperfective as
129, 216–217, 557–558
locational deictic
128–129, 172–175, 292
native
130, 172
other parts of speech as
130
position in noun phrase
260
temporal deictic
129, 174–177
verb roots as
562–563
with nominaliser -ba nom
129, 250–251
affricates
78–79
alveolar
79
palatal
78
phonetic transcription
58
two-way contrast in
101
voiced alveolar
68
agent
50, 271
and case-marking
261–269
and SVC s
444
and transitivity
143
and volition, control, intent
145–149, 151
agent nominaliser
120–121, 232–238
as adjectives
121, 236–237
as nouns
120, 232–236
marginal -ʦam
237
origin of
244
versus borrowed nouns in -pa
237
agriculture
crops
28
origin of
22–23, 27
Aktionsart (lexical aspect)
151–152
and SVC s
451, 505
examples
152
telicity
151
tests for
151
volition
151
allative case
282–285
borrowed origin
284–285
homophony with other markers
154–155
peculiarities
261, 284
versus locative case
282
with locative adverbs
174, 283, 327–328
with other cases
284
ambiguity
and case marking
262–263, 266–267, 270, 272
and orthographic choices
60
and question markers
530
anaphoric pronoun
108–110
ergative form
272
genitive form
280
animacy
107–108, 261–262
definition of
108, 262
distinction in pronouns
107–108
in case marking
261–262, 268
anterior subordination
555, 573–575, 578–582
based on locative nominaliser -tʰaŋ lcn
578–582
based on -gijoʔgana
573–575
SVC s expressing
447, 483–486
-tʰaŋ-loʔ lcn-abl versus anterior SVC
486–488, 580–581
-tʰaŋ-loʔ lcn-abl versus completive SVC
491–492, 581–582
approximants
82–84
allophones
83–84
in coda position
83, 85
in ʼUcen orthography
65
marginal
66–67
versus diphthongs
65, 83
aspect
138–140
completive
490–491, 507
from imperfective to perfective
347
imperfective
138–139
lexical aspect (Aktionsart)
151–152
perfective
139–140, 253–254
progressive
384, 481–482
aspectual auxiliaries
452
Assam (place)
4, 6, 47, 48
assertive clitic
637, 640, 643
distinction with =bej cop.ex.ok
642
assertive copula
393–394, 414–416
as clitic
342, 377, 409, 635–637, 643–644
functions
394, 415
in possessive sense
417–418
associative suffix
313–318
in copular sentences
316, 402–403
obligation of genitive suffix
313
replacement with comitative postposition
317
uses of
315–316
versus comitative postposition
294, 314
versus genitive case
316
a-transitive verbs
143, 146, 263, 372
autonomous verbs
143, 146
Azhi Lamu (dance)
31–32, 507, 734
barter trade
25, 28, 517
Bhisurapa (person)
16, 18
Bhutan (place)
2, 5, 12, 14, 22, 24–25, 47
Bhutan Tshangla (language)
46, 52, 99, 113, 116, 138, 186, 207, 228, 254–255, 258, 314, 472, 486–487, 510, 535, 570, 571, 574–575, 578, 591, 594, 628, 641
Bishum Shapa (person)
18–19
Bodish (Central)
1, 12–13, 24–25, 32, 45, 47–48, 66–68, 86, 88, 96–98, 117, 133, 161, 165, 180–183, 187–189, 197, 201, 202, 205, 208–209, 227, 229, 231, 243, 244, 254, 296, 299, 304, 338, 386–387, 465, 488, 510, 520, 542, 566, 571, 572, 590, 591, 592, 609, 623, 656, 661
Bodish (East)
1, 12, 25, 48, 66–68, 96–98, 197, 209, 227, 244, 304, 321, 387
Boḍo (people / language)
26, 110, 114, 188
Bomdila (place)
4, 5, 9, 40, 51, 173
Bon (religion)
38–40, 54, 164, 185–186, 670, 679
borrowed lexicon
48, 156–157, 227–230
adjectives
122
and borrowed phonemes
65–68, 227–228
and onset clusters
86–88, 228–229
and pitch and tone
96–101
honorifics
186
identification of
116–117, 156–157, 227
in orthography
64, 229
nouns
168, 188, 209
numerals
181–183
postpositions
126
British
5, 37
Brokpa (people / language)
2, 13, 22, 23, 25, 35, 47, 125, 127, 158, 181, 197, 201, 206, 227, 237, 243, 299, 303, 387, 465, 566, 590, 623, 628
Buddhism (religion)
36, 38–40, 186
Bugun (people / language)
12, 18, 26, 45–47, 181, 206, 297, 300
case (markers)
absolutive
107, 269–271
ablative
291–292
allative
282–285
and deictic adverbs
292
and postpositions
292–294
dative
276–280
ergative
271, 275
genitive
280–282
instrumental
271, 275
locative
285–291
case marking
143, 261–269
and animacy
108, 269
ergative-absolutive
269
causal copular clause
592–594
causal nominal suffix
309–311
causal subordination
555, 571–573, 577, 582–583
Chocangaca (language)
13, 24, 48, 125, 227, 628
Chöke (language)
60, 64
Chug (place)
17
administration of
44
as melting pot
26, 34
geography
1–4
geopolitical setting
4
history of
4–5
location of
1–2
migration to
25, 33
population growth
9
recent modernisation of
40
villages and hamlets
7
citation form
269, 556
clause chaining
151, 563–565, 614–615
clause
conditional
586–592
copular
393–395, 592–594, 644
definition
150–151
dependent (non-finite)
139, 150–151
finite (main)
139, 150–151
imperfective
139–140, 338–339, 554, 556–557, 560–562
infinitival
575–576
non-declarative
513
subordinate
554–555, 566–575, 577–585
verb-less
150, 395–397
clitic
153
copula as discourse
628–637, 640–644
discourse
650–669
distinction with suffix
153–154
expletive
611
intensifying
611
coda consonant clusters
88
in ʼUcen orthography
65
comitative postposition
294
versus associative marker
294, 314, 317
comparative adjective
322–325
comparative degree
122, 295, 301–303
completive aspect
488, 507
complex predicates
186–192
glossing
191
morphosyntactic behaviour
190
semantically compositional
187–188
semantically non-compositional
187
complex sentences
554
compound nouns
166–168
conditional clauses
586–592
conditional marker
590–591
conditional mood
142, 217, 586–588
modified by discourse clitics
588–589
versus cotemporal construction
589
conjunction
125, 153, 554, 594–601
additional
600
contrastive
595–600
coordinating
594–595
correlative
601
expletive
611–612
intensifying
611
consonant phonemes
74–82
marginal
66–68
native
74–82
non-native
66–68
constituent order
260–261
contact languages
12, 27–28, 47–48
continuous action suffix
603–604
contrastive conjunction
595–600
contrastive focus clitic
665–669
contrastive suffix
609–610
control
145
coordinating conjunction
594–595
copula
393–395
as discourse particles
628–637, 641–645
expansion of functions
395
functions of
393–394
negative
424–430
copula le
393, 405–411, 632–635
as discourse particle
632–635
in equational sense
406–407
etymology of
405
existential sense
407
functions
393, 405–406, 418
grammaticalisation of
409–411, 632–635
in forming future imperfective
389, 410–411, 634
in possessive sense
408–409, 418
in inclusive sense
406
negation
405, 427
uses
405
versus existential copula
408
versus verb le {da} ‘to do’
207, 608
with future perfective
634–635
copular causal clauses
592–594
copular verb
393, 419–436
attributive sense
420–421
equational sense
419–420
evidential basis
419
existential sense
422–423
forming adjectival phrases
120, 246, 248
functions
393–395, 419
future contexts
421
future perfective
433
limited conjugational flexibility
316, 431–436
negative
375, 404–405, 409, 411, 423–430
negation of present
375
non-past subjunctive and potential
433–434
possessive sense
421–422
past perfective
354–355, 431–433
preterite
431
recent grammaticalisation
431
relation with verb ʥu {da} ‘to sit, stay’
419, 431
versus existential copula
420, 422
with associative suffix
316
corpus
52–56, 677–686
correlative conjunction
601
cotemporal subordination
214, 254, 285, 554–555, 566–571, 584–585
distinction between markers of
569, 584
in comparative perspective
570–571
versus conditional clause
589
creaky voice
58, 68, 78, 85, 89–90, 96–97
cross-cousin marriage
158–160
curses
153
Da (religion)
38–40
Da-class (verbs)
132–138
data
52–56
dative case
276–280
debuccalisation
78
deictic adverbs
172–177
allomorphs
174, 292
and case markers
292
compounds of
174
locational
172–174
reduplication of
320
temporal
174–177
deixis
and movement
197–198, 440, 445–447, 492–503
in discourse
123
in adverbs
124, 128–129
spatial
123, 128, 173–175
temporal
123, 129, 174–175
demonstratives
123–125
anaphoric use of
123, 326, 328
as adverb
130
discourse
125, 618
position in noun phrase
260
spatial
123
temporal
124
uses of
107, 325–330
deontic modality
142
expressed through SVC s
451–452
dependent clause
150–151
derivation
119, 129, 231–232
derivational nominalisers
119, 122, 129, 231–245
dictionary
xi, xxv, 55, 57, 64, 132, 187
differential case marking
262
Dirang (place)
4, 5, 17, 19, 25, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37
Dirang Tshangla (language)
45, 50, 99, 112, 116, 138, 158, 186, 206, 207, 249, 254, 259, 303, 314, 317, 405, 472, 486, 487, 492, 511, 532, 535, 546, 554, 570, 574, 578, 583, 591, 593, 594, 596, 606–607, 611, 628, 629, 637, 641, 643
discourse clitics
650–669
additive focus
663–665
contrastive focus
665–669
emphatic
657–661
general focus
661–663
topic
650–657
discourse connectors
618–619
discourse particles
628–650
assertive copula
635–637, 643–644
copula le
632–635
existential copula
629–632, 640–642
particle aj ‘ok’
637–650
discourse structure
614–628
clause chains
614–615
hedging
625–628
reported speech
619–623
tail-head linkage
615–618
do (verb)
206–217
as modifying serial verb
488–492
as transitive verb
208
cognates of
206
conditional forms of
116, 212–214
fixed expressions with
209–217, 514–515
forming conjunctions
213
forming definite pronouns
212, 336
forming manner adverbs
216
in complex predicates
186, 208–209
modifying imperatives
216, 321
versus copula le
207, 405
double negatives
623–625
Duhum (place)
1, 6–8
Duhumbi (language)
1, 12, 44–52
as second language
34, 50
contact languages
47–48
endangerment
50–51
etymology
6–7
genetic affiliation
12, 45–47
number of speakers
9–11
transmission
50–51
typology
49–50
Duhumbi (people)
autonyms and exonyms
6–7
socio-economic status
40–43
homeland and origin
11–28, 229
livelihood
28–31
material and immaterial culture
31–33
population
8–11
relations with the neighbours
35–37
religion
38–40
social organisation
33–35, 44
egophoric pronoun
110–112
elaborate expressions
178
elicitation
52–54, 683–684
emphasis
657–661
role in case marking
262–263
through reduplication
318–320
emphatic clitic
657–661
functions
657–659
from interrogative to indefinite pronoun
336, 661
equational copula
393, 411–414
etymology
411
functions
393, 411–414
hedging of
414
in inclusive sense
411–412
in possessive sense
412–413, 417
in rhetorical questions
413
modified by particle =aj ‘ok’
417, 644–645
negation
411, 424
versus copula le
413
versus existential copula
412
ergative case / marker
49–50, 143–144, 262–269, 271–276
allomorphs of
271
ergative case
271–275
instrumental case
275–276
of pronouns
272
euphemisms
184–185, 240, 386
evidentiality
50, 141, 337
examples
55
exclamations
222, 225–226
existential copula
393–394, 397–405
as clitic
404, 629
as discourse particle
629
asserting the truth
404, 629–632, 641–642
cognates and origin
397–398
functions of
393–394, 398–399, 629
in attributive sense
400–401, 420–421
in comparative perspective
397
in copular clauses
404–405
in equational sense
401–402
in existential sense
399–400
in polar questions
404
in possessive sense
402–403, 416–418
in reported speech
398, 621–622, 629
in rhetorical questions
404, 534–536, 629, 632, 640–641
modification of
398–399
negation of
404, 424, 427
versus copula le
408
expletive verbal clitic
611–612
expressives
130–131, 177–179
fieldwork
52
fillers
222, 227
finiteness
132, 151–151
focus
650, 661–669
additive
663–665
contrastive
665–669
general
661–663
fricatives
60, 66–67, 79–80
future (tense)
140–141, 337–338, 376
future imperfective
389–391, 410, 435, 480, 482–483, 634
etymology of
389
evidential basis
389–390
uses of
389
future perfective
140, 257–259, 367, 376–382
as proposal
378
etymology of
255, 259, 376
in comparative perspective
258–259
in questions
378–379
negation of
379–380
phonetic distinction with past perfective
94, 381–382
uses of
367, 376–379
versus imperfective
376, 389
versus non-past subjunctive
258, 367–368
versus present
258, 367–368
with copular verbs
433
gender
borrowed morphemes
229, 296–297
grammatical
149, 295
inherited morphemes
295–296
natural
295
general nominaliser
232
genitive case
109, 111, 121, 280–282
allomorphs of
280
apposition
168, 282
composition
281
in associative construction
313–314
in forming deverbal adjectives
121, 236–237
of pronouns
281, 298, 301
possession
281
with postpositions
127, 293–294
gerund
104, 105, 251–253
glosses
xvii
glottalisation
in ʼUcen orthography
64
of coda plosives
58, 78, 97
of vowel onsets
58, 89, 96
grammatical categories
132
aspect
138–140
epistemology
141
evidentiality
141
finiteness
150–151
gender
149
modality
142
mood
142
number
150
person
150
polarity
143
tense
140
transitivity
143–145
voice
149
volition, control and intent
145–149
greetings
153
Guru Rinpoche (religion)
39
habit or custom
339–340, 343, 346, 370–371
head root
438
hedging
141, 414, 531, 625–628
Hindi (language)
48, 50, 51, 61, 66
honorifics
185–186
housing
32
hunting
20, 27, 30, 229, 677, 678
hunting language
54, 184, 185
iambic rhythm
89, 92
ideophones
130, 224
impending action suffixes
605–609
imperative
539–542, 646–648
as request
540
as wish
202
indirect
540
irregular
472, 542–544
polite imperative
646–648
imperfective aspect
138–139
imperfective phrase and clause
554–560
imperfective
103, 138–139, 337–347, 554, 556–566
as adjective
122
as adverb
129, 216–217, 557–558, 560
as clause / phrase
342, 556–557, 559–560
evidential basis
141, 338
in clause chains
138–139, 557, 563–565, 614
in comparative perspective
337–338, 565–566
in past tense
337–343
in present tense
343–344
in SVC s
439–441, 479
in questions
343–346
modification to perfective aspect
347, 488
negation of
143, 251, 346–347
uses of
139, 338–340, 343, 556–557, 560–562
verb roots as
216–217, 340, 562–563
versus past perfective
147, 253, 341, 348, 352–353
versus present
145, 343, 368–370
indefinite time
140, 351–354
indirect object
50, 260–263, 269, 272, 556, 615
infinitival clause
575–576
infinitive -baʔ inf
51, 90, 194, 255–260, 604
as deverbal noun
255–257
in comparative perspective
258–259
in forming infinitival clauses
575–576
marking future perfective
257–258, 376
uses of
255
intensifier (general)
320–321
intensifying clitic
611
intensity
318–321, 611
intent
145–149
interjections
153, 222–223
interrogatives
131, 336, 513–520
in questions
527–530
locative
174, 518
manner
515–516
person
519–520
prefix of
131, 513
quantity
517–518
reduplication
336
time
515
use
336, 514
used as pronouns
116, 212, 336
IPA
57–58
irrealis
142, 337, 347, 367, 376, 513, 531, 537, 586, 589
Jagarbasti (place)
8, 42
Jarepa (religion)
22, 35, 40
Jerigaon (place)
5, 13, 17, 28
Jomo (religion)
2, 35, 38–39, 54, 679
jussive mood
546–547
kakung torda (religion)
22, 40
Kezang Döyön Tenzin (religion)
40
Khamkhar (place)
8
Khamzang Ama Jomo (religion)
38
Khispi (people / language)
6, 8, 12, 25, 26, 27, 35, 37, 41, 45, 46, 47
number of speakers
9–11
relation with Duhumbi
6, 26, 37, 46–47
Kho-Bwa cluster
12, 45–47
Khoina (place)
13, 17, 18, 28
Khoitam (place)
17, 28
kinship terms
31, 158–165
Koro (language)
11
language abbreviations
xvii
Laphek (place)
8, 9, 23, 26
lative case
287
Leipzig Glossing Rules
xvii
lexical prefixes
106, 117
lexical registers
184–186
Lhase Tsangma (religion)
15, 18
life events
31
life stages
164
ligatures
58
limiting action suffix
610
lingua franca
47, 48, 50
Lish (place)
3, 7, 8, 9, 16, 17
Lish Gonpatse (place)
7, 8
livestock
23, 29
loan words
see: borrowed lexicon
locative adverb
128–129, 172–175, 292
modifying demonstratives
320
position in noun phrase
260
locative case
261, 285–291, 595, 607
and interrogatives
288, 514, 516, 518
as cotemporal subordinator
254, 567–571
as infinitival clauses
255, 575–576
as plea
550
as request
648
as suggestion
285, 548–550
etymology of
285–286
extension from nominal to verbal domain
103, 151, 154–155, 285, 550, 554, 567
functions of
286–291
in causal subordination
582–583
in comparative perspective
285
moment in time
287–288
movement to a goal
287
purposive
289–291
static location
286–287
versus allative case
261, 282–283, 287
with postpositions
126, 292–294
locative nominaliser
239–244, 577–578
abstract interpretations of
241
as anterior subordinator
578–582
as causal subordinator
577, 582–583
versus borrowed nouns in -sa
243
Lungthang (place)
2, 21–22
mani tam
32
manner nominaliser
243–244
marginal consonant phoneme
65–67
marriage
158, 162–164
Merak and Sakteng (place)
22
Miji (people / language)
5, 18, 20, 23, 25, 28, 35–37, 181
minor parts of speech
102, 153
clitics and suffixes
153
conjunctions
153
copula
153
interjections
153
mixed verbs
143–144, 146, 148–149
modal verbs
374
modal voice
69–71, 90
modality
141–142, 338, 455–456
deontic
142, 451
epistemic
142, 455–456, 460, 625
SVC s and
142, 451, 455–456, 511
modifying root in SVC
437
Monpa (people / language)
37, 45–46
Monyul (place)
7, 14, 172–173, 185–186, 678, 683
mood
142
conditional
142, 586
irrealis
142
realis
142
moods
513, 537–539
adhortative
545–546
imperative
539–544
jussive
546–547
negated
539, 552–553
optative
546
plea to a superior
550
prohibitive
544–545
request
550–552
suggestive
547–550
morphemes
153, 154
list of
xvii, xix
list of non-Duhumbi
xvii
multiple functions of
154
representing a single grammatical category
155
morphosyntactic alignment
49, 269
motherese
184–185
motion verbs
148, 186, 193–202
multilingualism
50
Mundapa (people / language)
18–21, 27, 47
Namshu (place)
17, 36
nasal consonants
82–83
negation
143, 190
double negatives
623–625
of copula
143, 394, 424–429
of moods
143, 539, 544–545, 552–553
of the imperfective
346–347
of the past perfective
356
of the preterite
357–358
of the perfect
363
of the present
375–376
of the future perfective
380
of SVC s
448–449
negative copular verb not.be1
143, 393–394, 424–426
functions
424–426
limited conjugational flexibility
431–436
negation of entire predicate
426
negative copular verb not.be2
143, 393–394, 424, 426–429
functions
426–429
limited conjugational flexibility
431–436
Neolithic tools
14
Ngangma (place)
8
nicknames
169–170
nine (numeral), significance of
18, 176
nomen agentis
see: agent nominaliser
nominal parts of speech
102
and stress
89, 95
distinction from verbal parts of speech
102–106, 245
prefixes
106
nominal suffixes
261–294, 294–295
accompanying
306–307
associative
313–318
case markers
261–294
causal suffix
309–311
comparative
301–304
gender
295–297
number
298–300
numeral suffixes
311–313
reflexive
300–301
spatial
304–306
superlative
301–304
unspecified location and time
308–309
unspecified number
309
unspecified time
307–308
nominalisations
103, 129, 221, 231–259, 554, 566
nominaliser -ba nom
245–255
as adjective
119–120, 246–250
as adverb
129, 250–251
as derivational nominaliser
246–253
as gerund
251–253
as past perfective
140, 253–254
derivational nominaliser
254
in comparative perspective
254–255
nominaliser -baʔ inf
255–259
as derivational nominaliser
255–257
as future perfective
257–258
as infinitive
255–257
in comparative perspective
258–259
origin of
255, 259
nominalisers (derivational)
231–239, 246–253, 255–257
agent
232–238
definition
231
general
231, 246–253, 255–257
in comparative perspective
244–245
locative
239–243
manner
243–244
patient
238–239
time
244
non-declarative clause types
513–553
moods
537–553
questions
524–537
non-finite
139, 150, 245, 255, 509, 566, 614–615
non-native phonemes
65–68
non-past potential
140, 142, 367, 379, 387–389
non-past subjunctive
337, 367, 382–387
homophony with additive focus clitic
367, 386
in comparative perspective
386
negation of
385
uses of
367–385
versus future perfective
367, 379, 383
non-past tenses
367–390
non-verbal predicates
393–436
taxonomic types
393
noun phrase
260–336
nouns
116–118, 157–170, 260–261
borrowed
117, 229
lexico-semantic fields
117, 157
native
116–118, 157–169
position in noun phrase
260
prefixes
116–118
proper
118, 169–170
number
298–300
numeral hin ‘one’
94, 103–106, 125, 245, 330–334
as indefinite article
103–106, 245, 252, 330
distinguishing nominal and verbal parts of speech
103–106, 245
in approximate sense
130, 330–333
in comparative perspective
334
uses of
330–334
numeral suffixes
311–313
exclusive
311
inclusive
312
indeterminate
312–313
numerals
106, 125, 179–184
cardinal
179–181
in comparative perspective
181–183
measurement units as
180–181
ordinal
181
vigesimal system
179–180
vigesimal versus decimal systems
181–183
Nyukmadung (place)
2, 5, 8, 9, 16, 22, 38, 47
object
49–50, 90, 260–269
onomatopoeia
130, 208, 224
onset clusters
58, 83, 86–88
borrowed origin of
86–87
in ʼUcen orthography
65
with labial medial
58
with rhotic medial
58, 86
optative mood
546–547
optional case marking
262
origin and migration histories
13, 16–28
orthography
57–69
in dictionary
59
in Roman
57, 59–60
in ʼUcen
60–65
ownership
300–301
palatalisation
58–60
particle =aj ‘ok’
637–650
in polite imperative
646–648
in polite request
649–650
in present proposal
645
in questions
638
in request
648
with assertive copula
643–644
with equational copula
644–645
with existential copula
640–642
with non-past subjunctive
638–640
with past perfective
640
parts of speech
102–155
list of
xxiv
passive voice
149, 494–500
past perfective
348–356
as base verbal form
139, 254
homophony with adjectives
103, 120
modification of
355, 409–410, 505, 507, 632–634, 640
negation of
356
uses of
140, 348–355
versus imperfective
253, 338, 339, 341, 344–345, 348, 352, 353
versus past imperfective
349
versus perfect
253, 362
versus preterite
253, 349, 352, 356–357
past potential
140, 142, 337, 348, 364, 365–366
past subjunctive
140, 142, 143, 146, 363–365
patient nominaliser
238–239
patient
50, 143, 146, 148, 261–263, 268, 269, 276–279, 444, 652
Pemlengpa (people)
13, 24, 25, 35
perfect
348, 358–363
negation of
363
uses of
358
versus imperfective
360
versus past perfective
253, 362
versus preterite
358, 360, 361
perfective aspect
138, 140
phonology
65–101
Phu (religion)
38–40
pitch
58, 59, 68, 90, 96–101, 174, 396, 524
plea to a superior
550
plosives
59, 60, 64, 66, 75, 76–78, 85, 90, 96, 97, 101
plural suffix
114, 123, 298–300
polar questions
385, 522–523, 536–537
polite imperative
646–648
polite request
649–650
possessive relations
416–418
postpositions
125–127, 181, 292–294
and obligatory case markers
126, 292
position in noun phrase
260
uses of naŋ ‘in’
334–336
potentiality question
531–532
pragmatic case marking
262
predicates
102, 103, 123, 128, 260, 391
complex
186–192
non-verbal
393–436
prefixes
106
of adjectives
84, 119
of demonstratives
123
of interrogatives
131
of kinship terms
158
of nouns
106, 116–118
prosody and
89, 95
present (marker)
368–376
negation
375–376
uses of
368–374
versus imperfective
343, 368
with modal verbs
374
preterite
140, 141, 193, 338–339, 356–358
homophonous forms
356, 358
negation of
357–358
versus imperfective
357
versus past perfective
253, 349, 352, 356–357
versus perfect
358, 360, 361
privative opposition in case marking
262
progressive aspect
384, 481–482
prohibitive
544–545
pronouns
106–116
anaphoric
108–110
animate and human—non-human distinction
107
dual
107
egophoric
110–112
other parts of speech functioning as
116
personal
107
position in noun phrase
260–261
proper nouns
118, 169–170
proposal
378, 645
Proto-Western Kho-Bwa
1, 12, 13, 17, 26, 27, 46, 89, 90, 101, 106, 116, 117, 118, 123, 135, 136, 156, 158, 170, 171, 179, 181, 254, 258, 296, 300, 397, 465, 472, 510
Puroik (people / language)
11, 12, 16, 32, 45, 46, 178, 179, 181, 185, 201, 337
question clitic
92, 153–154, 520, 536
question marker ja
520, 523–524
question marker ɲi
520–523
questions
513
formation of
524–530
intonation in
524
polar question
526, 536–537
potentiality question
531–532
repeated question
532–534
rhetorical question
534–536
sub-types of
530
Rahung (place)
13, 17, 24, 28, 35, 46, 48, 173
realis
142, 337, 338, 341, 347, 358, 364, 367, 376, 434, 513, 531, 537, 589, 634
recipient
108, 261, 276–278
reciprocal suffix
604–605
reduplication
106
in expressives
130–131, 177–179
of locational adverbs
320
of pronouns
336
reflexive suffix
300–301
repetition
for intensity and emphasis
318–320
repetitive suffix
602
reported speech
360, 619–621, 629
request
279, 475, 540–542, 545, 550–552, 646, 648–650
retroflex consonants
60, 66–67
in ʼUcen orthography
64–65
revitalisation
xii, 31, 52
rhetorical question
74, 413–414, 534–536, 632, 640
rhythm
89, 92
rituals
38–40, 54, 679, 714–715
language of
54, 185
Rupa (place)
4, 5, 17, 47
Samtu (place)
8, 9, 23, 26, 34, 50
Sangthi (place)
2, 3, 13, 14, 16, 17–22, 28, 33, 40, 47
Sartang (people / language)
1, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 25, 27, 31, 34, 35, 36, 45, 46, 47, 48, 57, 74, 78, 82, 89, 90, 98, 99, 100, 117, 119, 128, 133, 136, 156, 157, 158, 170, 182, 186, 197, 201, 206, 244, 254, 258, 285, 306, 334, 337, 397, 405, 419, 510, 520, 557, 565, 592, 637, 656
say (verb)
217–222
Senge (place)
5, 22
Shar Dungle Gepu (religion)
38
Sherdukpen (people / language)
1, 5, 6, 12, 13, 24, 28, 34, 45, 46, 47, 53, 57, 74, 78, 82, 89, 98, 99, 100, 119, 128, 133, 136, 158, 170, 182, 186, 197, 201, 206, 243, 244, 254, 258, 285, 306, 334, 337, 397, 405, 419, 510, 520, 557, 565, 637, 656, 663, 665, 669
Shergaon (place)
17, 24, 36, 46
spatial suffix
304–306
speech dysfluencies
222
storybook
xi, 13, 33, 55–56, 670, 684
stress (phonological)
89–95, 294
structure
of the grammar
xii
syllabic
49, 83, 86, 178
sub-phonemic features
96
subject
49–50, 143, 145, 146, 148, 150, 260–263
subordination
139, 150, 395, 554–613
anterior
485–492, 567, 573–575, 578–582
based on nominalisation
566–583
causal
571–573, 577, 582–583, 592–594
cotemporal
566–571, 584–585
conditional
212, 586–592
imperfective
556–557, 559–560
infinitival
575–576
formed with SVC s
441, 443, 447, 479, 483, 485–492
functions of
554–555
in clause chains
563–565, 614
types of
554–555
with locative nominaliser
242, 577–583
suggestive mood
548–550
superlative degree
122, 161, 181, 291, 301–304
superlative verbal suffix
612–613
SVC s
437–512
and Aktionsart
451, 505
anterior
443, 451, 483
asymmetrical
441–443, 479–508
change in volition
443, 451, 453, 492, 500–503
change in aspect
443, 451, 453, 479–492, 506–508
change in voice
451, 453, 492–500
cognates in related and contact languages
509–512
definition of
437–438
expressing modality
455–468
from dynamic to static
443, 451, 453, 503–506
grammaticalisation of
439, 444, 509
modification by adverbs
450
modifying verb roots
451–454
negation
448–450, 454
prosodic features
442, 450–451
roots and slots
453–455
symmetrical
441–442, 455–478, 509
syntactic dependency
438, 447–448
Ta-class (verbs)
132–138
tail-head linkage
355, 486, 489, 615–618
Tawang (place)
4, 5, 8, 12, 15, 22, 23, 25, 36, 40
Tawang Monpa (people / language)
8, 9, 12, 25, 26, 28, 31, 32, 34, 35, 48, 50, 51, 54, 56, 98, 99, 110, 115, 125, 158, 181, 185, 191, 196, 201, 206, 209, 214, 227, 234, 237, 243, 244, 262, 303, 306, 317, 387, 543, 598, 623, 656
temporal adverbs
129, 174–177, 260
tense
140–141
texts
677–723
Tezpur (place)
4, 40, 173
Thembang (place)
15, 17, 19, 24, 36, 40
Tibet (people / place)
administration by
5, 25, 28, 36–37
taxation by
5, 25, 34–37, 181
Tibetan (language)
xxv, 6, 25, 32, 48, 54, 57, 60, 61, 64, 65, 66, 68, 88, 98, 99, 111, 125, 131, 133, 135, 171, 185, 191, 197, 201, 206, 227, 237, 243, 244, 254, 259, 262, 303, 306, 398, 405, 465, 542, 571, 585, 590, 594, 598, 607, 609, 623, 628, 656
time nominaliser
244
time
183
relevance for verbal marking
351
telling
183
tone
96–101
topic clitic
650–657
in other suffixes
124, 125, 571, 573
transcription
57
Roman
59–60
of Written Tibetan
xvii, xxv
phonemic
59
phonetic
57–59
relation between systems of
61–64
ʼUcen
60–65
transitivity
143–145
trochaic rhythm
89
Tsangpa (place)
7, 8, 35, 57
tshan (clan)
24, 35
Tshangla (people / language)
3, 12, 19, 22, 25, 35, 47, 111, 117, 125, 127, 131, 133, 135, 156, 158, 181, 191, 205, 206, 209, 227, 237, 243, 244, 262, 286, 294, 299, 338, 405, 419, 510, 534, 555, 566, 572, 609, 641, 656
tsho (admin. term)
8, 34
tsorgan (admin. term)
34, 44
Tukshipa ~ Thukshipa (clan)
17–18, 20, 35, 47
unspecific adjective
154, 325
unspecified location and time suffix
308–309
unspecified number suffix
309
unspecified time suffix
307–308
verb and copula-less clauses
395–397
verb class
132–138
and complex coda clusters
138
and homophonous roots
138
origins
133
verbal clitics
601–613
verbal markers and morphology
138, 337–392
in comparative perspective
337
encoding Aktionsart
151–152
encoding aspect
138–141
encoding evidentiality and epistemology
141
encoding mood
142, 626
encoding tense
140
encoding volition, control and intent
145
summary of
392
verbal parts of speech
102
distinction from nominal parts of speech
102
verbal suffixes (modifiers)
95, 337, 601–613
characteristics
601
continuous action
603–604
contrastive
609–610
expletive
611–612
impending action
605–609
intensifier
611
‘keep on’
602–603
limiting action
610
reciprocal
604–605
repetitive
602
superlative
612–613
voice (phonological)
58, 69, 96, 101
voice
active
149
passive
149, 494–496, 496–500
volition, control and intent
145–149, 262, 265, 269
vowel phonemes
59, 60, 68–74
nasalised
74
native
68–74
non-native
68, 228
weaving
31–32
West Kameng (place)
4
Western Kho-Bwa
homeland
16–17, 229
languages
12, 45–46, 49
origin
16, 36
previous descriptions
45
word classes
102
word order
90, 260–261
written sources
14–16
Wylie transcription
xxv–xxvi
Yewang (place)
17, 36
Zenodo
xi, 1, 683