1

first person

–

2

second person

–

3

third person

–

ANA

anaphoric pronoun

bi

ABL

ablative marker

-loʔ

ADD

additive focus clitic

=tʰeʔ

ADH

adhortative mood marker

-ɲu

AGN

agent nominaliser

-kʰen

ALL

allative marker

-ta

CAUS.COP

copular causative suffix

-ʨʰe

CDS

comparative degree suffix

-ɕok

ASSOC

associative suffix

-tʰoŋ

COND

conditional mood marker

-se

CONF

contrastive focus clitic

=na

CONA

continuous action suffix

-paʔ

COP.EX

existential copula

beʔ ~ =be

COP.LE

copula ‘le’

le ~ =le

COP.EQ

equational copula

giʨʰa

COP.AS

assertive copula

ɕi ~ =ɕi

DAT

dative marker

-ɲi

DU

dual marker

-ziŋ

EGO

egophoric pronoun

raŋ

EMPH

emphatic clitic

=raŋ

ERG

ergative marker

-oʔ ~ -woʔ ~ -roʔ ~ -moʔ ~ -noʔ ~ -ŋoʔ ~ -joʔ

FOC

focus clitic

=ta

GEN

genitive marker

-aʔ ~ -waʔ ~ -raʔ ~ -maʔ ~ -naʔ ~ -ŋaʔ ~ -jaʔ

IMP

imperative mood marker

-ma

IMP1

irregular imperative mood marker

-ɲi

INF

infinitive (future perfective) marker

-baʔ ~ -paʔ

INT

intensifying clitic

=jaŋ

IPFV

imperfective

-da ~ -ta

JUS

jussive mood marker

-ʨʰun

LCN

locative nominaliser

-tʰaŋ

LOC

locative (cotemporal, suggestion) marker

-kʰo

MNN

manner nominaliser

-lu

NEG

negation prefix

ba-

NEG.COP.PRF

perfect negative copula

balaŋ

NEG.PRS

negative present marker

-baŋ ~ -paŋ

NOM

nominaliser (perfective, gerund)

-ba ~ -pa

NPST

non-past

PTN

patient nominaliser

-ʥu ~ -ʨu

OPT

optative mood marker

-ɲow

PL

plural marker

-bak

POST

anterior subordinating suffix

-gijoʔgana

POT.NPST

non-past potential marker

-tʰja

POT.PST

past potential marker

-ʨʰaja

POT.Q

potentiality question suffix

-ʦen

PRET

preterite, simple past, aorist marker

-ɲi

PRF

perfect realis marker

-loŋ

PRS

present marker

-deʔ ~ -teʔ

PROH

prohibitive prefix

tʰa-

PST

past

Q1

question particle

ɲi ~ =ɲi

Q2

question particle

ja ~ =ja

RECP

reciprocal suffix

-ris

REFL

reflexive marker

-bi ~ -pi

REP

repetitive action suffix

-ʨʰen

SBJV.NPST

non-past subjunctive marker

-tʰeʔ

SBJV.PST

past subjunctive marker

-ʨʰa

SDS

superlative degree suffix

-tʰakpa

TMN

temporal nominaliser

-dus

TOP

topic clitic

=gi

-aʔ ~ -waʔ ~ -raʔ ~ -maʔ ~ -naʔ ~ -ŋaʔ ~ -jaʔ

GEN

genitive marker (possessive, appositive)

aj ~ =aj

‘ok’

agreement particle

ba-

NEG

negation prefix

-ba ~ -pa

NOM

nominaliser (imperfective, gerund)

-bak

PL

plural marker

-baŋ ~ -paŋ

NEG.PRS

negative present marker

-baʔ ~ -paʔ

INF

infinitive (future perfective)

beʔ ~ =be

COP.EX

existential copula

-bi ~ -pi

REFL

reflexive marker

-ʨe

‘or’

numeral suffix ‘or’

-ʨʰa

SBJV.PST

past subjunctive marker

-ʨʰaja

POT.PST

past potential marker

-ʨʰe

CAUS.COP

copular causative suffix

-ʨʰen

REP

repetitive action suffix

-ʨʰokʨʰok ~ -ʨʰokpa

‘ready.to’

impending action suffix

-ʨʰun

JUS

jussive mood marker

-da ~ -ta

IPFV

imperfective

=daŋ zakda

‘too.much’

excessive clitic

-deʔ ~ -teʔ

PRS

present marker

-dus

TMN

temporal nominaliser

-gaŋ

‘during’

cotemporal marker

=gi

TOP

topic marker

-gijoʔgana

POST

anterior subordinating suffix

-ʥu ~ -ʨu

PTN

patient nominaliser

-ʥuʥu

‘keep.on’

durative continuous suffix

-ka

‘together’

numeral suffix

-kʰen

AGN

agent nominaliser

-kʰo

LOC

locative (cotemporal, suggestion) marker

-laŋ

‘meanwhile’

cotemporal suffix

le ~ =le

COP.LE

copula le

-loʔ

ABL

ablative

=oloʔ ~ =loʔ

‘then’

discourse connector

-loŋ

PRF

perfect realis marker

-lu

MNN

manner nominaliser

-ma

IMP

imperative mood marker

-ma

‘around’

numeral suffix ‘around’

-miʦi

‘till’

limiting action suffix

=na

CONF

contrastive focus clitic

-naʔ

‘again’

repeated question suffix

-ɲi

PRET

preterite marker

-ɲi

IMP1

irregular imperative mood marker

-ɲi

DAT

dative marker

ɲi ~ =ɲi

Q1

question particle

-ɲow

OPT

optative mood marker

-ɲu

ADH

adhortative mood marker

-oʔ ~ -woʔ ~ -roʔ ~ -moʔ ~ -noʔ ~ -ŋoʔ ~ -joʔ

ERG

ergative marker

-paʔ

CONA

continuous action suffix

-pʰun

‘etc.’

indeterminate number suffix

=raŋ

EMPH

emphatic clitic

-ren

‘whilst’

cotemporal suffix

-rinpra

‘about.to’

impending action suffix

-ris

RECP

reciprocal suffix

-saŋ

‘some’

unspecified time and location suffix

-sarsar

‘ready.to’

impending action suffix

-se

COND

conditional mood marker

ɕi ~ =ɕi

COP.AS

assertive copula

-ɕok

CDS

comparative degree suffix

-ɕok

‘side’

spatial suffix

-ɕuɕu

‘despite’

contrastive suffix

=ta

FOC

focus clitic

-ta

ALL

allative marker

tʰa-

PROH

prohibitive prefix

-tʰakpa ~ tʰak

SDS

superlative degree marker

-tʰaŋ

LCN

locative nominaliser

=tʰeʔ

ADD

additive focus clitic

-tʰeʔ

SBJV.NPST

non-past subjunctive marker

-tʰoŋ

ASSOC

associative suffix

-tʰja

POT.NPST

non-past potential marker

-ʦen

POT.Q

potentiality question suffix

-ʦoŋ

‘some.time’

unspecified time suffix

=jaŋ

INT

intensifying clitic

-jaŋ

‘and.co’

inclusive suffix

-ziŋ

DU

dual marker

ABL

ablative marker

-gaj ~ -kaj

TSH

-ke

TM

ACC

accent particle

-te

TSH

AS

assertive marker

-bi

TSD

CONT

contrastive conjunction

-ɕin

TM

COP

copula

la

TSH

ʨa

TSB

na

TSD

nej

TM

neu ~ nau ~ nou

TM

nom

TM

DAT

dative marker

-ga ~ -ka

TSH

-le

TM

ERG

ergative marker

-ɕel

TM

-gi ~ -ki

TSH

FUT

future marker

-bo ~ -po ~ -mo ~ -lo

TSD

-jukʰu

TM

GEN

genitive marker

-ka ~ -ga ~ -aʔ

TSH

-ku ~ -k

TM

ICF

inclusive focus marker

-gu

TSD

-bu

TSB

LOC

locative marker

-ga ~ -ka

TSH

-la

TB

-ku (= GEN)

TM

NEG.COP

negative copula

me

TM

mono ~ mon

TM

mana

TSD

maŋgi

TSH

mala

TSB

NF

non-finite

-ɲi

TSH

-su

TM

PL

plural

-bak

TSH

-naŋ

TM

PFV

perfective marker

-ban ~ -pan

TSD

PROP

proposal

-ko

TSH

Q1

question marker

mo

TSH

wa

TM

AS

Assamese

BP

Brokpa (mainly Lubrang)

DH

Duhumbi

DZ

Dzongkha

ENG

English

HIN

Hindi

IA

Indo-Aryan (undifferentiated)

MC

Middle Chinese

NEP

Nepali

OC

Old Chinese

OT

Old Tibetan

PSS

Proto-Sartang-Sherdukpen

PTB

Proto-Tibeto-Burman

PWKB

Proto-Western Kho-Bwa

SJ

Sartang Jerigaon

TB

Tibetan

TM

Tawang Monpa

TSB

Bhutan Tshangla

TSD

Dirang Tshangla

TSH

Tshangla (undifferentiated)

adj.

adjective

adv.

adverb

art.

article

clit.

clitic

conj.

conjunction

dem.

demonstrative

det.

determiner

expr.

expressive

interj.

interjection

interrog.

interrogative

n.

noun

num.

numeral

onom.

onomatopoeic

postp.

postposition

pref.

prefix

pron.

pronoun

prop.n.

proper noun

quant.

quantifier

redupl.

reduplicating

stut.

stutter

suff.

suffix

s.v.

serial verb

v.i.

intransitive verb

v.t.

transitive verb

(H)

honorific term

☸

religious term

(R)

religious term

(es)

elicited speech

[…]

in glossed examples: something that should have been said (i.e. a correction of what was said or an addition)

{…}

in glossed examples: something that was said but should not have been said (i.e. a stammer, stutter or mistake)

(…)

in translation of glossed examples: a clarification or explanation

[…]

in running text: phonetic representation

/…/

in running text: phonological representation

⟨…⟩

in running text: orthographic representation

{da} ~ {ta}

when following a verb root: indicating the class of the verb (Da / Ta)

[CHUK …]

reference to the original sound file (see list in section 13.2)

*

reconstructed form

†

ungrammatical example or unattested form

masl

meters above sea level

<

‘derived from’: Duh. t- < PWKB *t- (Duh. t- derives from reconstructed Proto-Western Kho-Bwa *t-), Duh. X < Tib. Y (Duhumbi X derives from Tibetan Y)

SVC

serial verb construction

ང་

ṅ

ng

ཉ་

ñ

ny

ཤ་

ś

sh

ཞ་

ź

zh

འ་

ḥ

ʼa