Figures
1.1 Initial exploration of sepulchre at Minet el-Beida led by Léon Albanèse 2
1.2 Ivory carving of female deity, first campaign—Minet el-Beida 2
1.3 Bronze statue of Ba‘lu, first campaign—Minet el-Beida 3
1.4 North palace tablet discovery—Ras Shamra 3
1.5 North palace bronze cache—Ras Shamra 4
3.1 Political borders of the “Land of Ugarit” 72
3.2 Territories of the “Land of Ugarit” and “Canaan” in the Late Bronze Age 83
3.3 Middle Bronze Age polities in the Fertile Crescent 90
4.1 Topographical map of Tell Ras Shamra 100
4.2 Western view of the fortification wall with glacis 120
4.3 Map of MB IIA fortifications (Northern Levant and Upper Euphrates) 122
4.4 Map of MB IIB–C fortifications (Northern Levant and Upper Euphrates) 122
4.5 Map of LB I fortifications (Northern Levant and Upper Euphrates) 123
4.6 The Royal Palace at Ebla 128
4.7 Level VII Royal Palace at Alalaḫ 128
4.8 MB IIB–C Palace at Tilmen Höyük 129
4.9 Niqmepa’s Palace, Level IV Alalaḫ 129
4.10 The MB IIC Eastern Palace at Qaṭna 130
4.11 The LB Royal Palace at Ugarit 130
4.12 Map of North Syrian palace types 132
4.13 Map of Migdāl temples 139
4.14 Map of Ugarit and its neighboring ports, Minet el-Beida and Ras ibn-Hani 140
4.15 Seal RS 11.025 (c. 1900 to 1750) 149
4.16 Seal RS 9.889 (c. 1900 to 1750) 149
4.17 Seal RS 5.175 (c. 1850 to 1750) 150
4.18 Seal RS 3.411 (c. 1900 to 1800) 150
4.19 Seal RS 7.174 of “Hamnishi son of Inbusha, servant of Sîn and Amurru” 151
4.20 Map of Classic Syrian glyptic 152
4.21 Map of the ritual usage of donkeys 160
4.22 Map of sites exhibiting two or more elements of the material assemblage 172
4.23 Map of sites exhibiting three or more elements of the material assemblage 172
4.24 Map of sites exhibiting four or five elements of the material assemblage 173
4.25 Map of MBIIB–C fortified sites that do not exhibit this material assemblage 174
5.1 Genetic subgrouping of Central Semitic 207
5.2 Genetic subgrouping of Northwest Semitic 212
5.3 Genetic subgrouping of Western Amorite and Ugaritic (1) 233
5.4 Genetic subgrouping of Western Amorite and Ugaritic (2) 249
6.1 Territories of Ugarit and Canaan in the Late Bronze Age 257
6.2 Map of sites exhibiting three, four, or five elements of the material assemblage 259
6.3 Genetic subgrouping of Ugaritic 264
Tables
1.1 Archaeological periods of the Levant 7
2.1 Archaeological periods of Tell Ras Shamra 28
3.1 Levantine cities mentioned in the Mari archives 93
4.1 Archaeological periodization of Tell Ras Shamra 103
4.2 Late Bronze Age archaeological periods of Tell Ras Shamra 110
5.1 Western Amorite verbal forms of the yaqtal/yiqtal type 204
5.2 Semitic proper nouns in the Execration Texts 229
5.3 Names of the solar deity in Alalaḫ VII onomastic evidence 238
5.4 Western Amorite evidence for assimilation of nun 240
5.5 Realization of the Proto-Semitic lateral consonants 246
5.6 Pantheon of Western Amorite onomastic evidence 250
5.7 Pantheon of Ugaritic onomastic evidence 253
6.1 Pantheon of Western Amorite and Ugaritic onomastic evidence 265