Figures

1 Reconstruction of a tholos in a Greek-style bathhouse 11

2 Plan of the baths of Fregellae (Italy) with its early hypocaust 14

3 Plan of the Stabian Baths in Pompeii (Italy), with the alleged Greek hipbaths to the north 15

4 Plan of the Baths of Nero in Rome (Italy) 16

5 Plan of the Baths of Trajan in Rome (Italy) with the standing remains highlighted in black 17

6 Plan of the Small Baths in Hadrian’s Villa at Tibur (Italy) 18

7 Plan of the Baths of Caracalla in Rome (Italy) 19

8 Flow of the hot gasses inside the tubuli according to the experiment by H.-C. Grassmann 21

9 Reconstruction of a hypocaust system with testudo above the furnace, in connection to the alveus 22

10 Schematic representation of the location of chimney flues in connection to the hypocaust 23

11 Different types of wall heating 24

12 Plan of the baths under the Piazza dei Cinquecento in Rome (Italy), and the excavation during the construction of modern Termini train station 98

13 Drawing of the caldarium of the baths under the Piazza dei Cinquecento in Rome 99

14 Plan of the Baths under the Lateran Baptistery in Rome and plan of the Lateran Baptistery, with small pool to its north 100

15 Plan of the Baths of the Invidious in Ostia (Italy) 114

16 Baths of the Invidious in Ostia (Italy), small pool in the frigidarium seen from the west 114

17 Plan of the Baths of the Swimmer in Ostia (Italy) 115

18 Baths of the Swimmer in Ostia, small pool of the frigidarium seen from the east 116

19 Plan of the Baths of the Six Columns in Ostia (Italy) with the small heat lock 116

20 Baths of the Six Columns in Ostia (Italy), heat lock seen from the north 117

21 Plan of the Baths of Porta Marina in Ostia (Italy) 118

22 Plan of the Baths of the Coachmen in Ostia (Italy) 119

23 Baths of the Coachmen in Ostia (Italy), small basin in the caldarium seen from the south 120

24 Plan of the Baths of Neptune in Ostia (Italy), with the 4th c. walls highlighted in red 121

25 Drawings of the late antique mosaics in the Baths of Neptune in Ostia (Italy) 122

26 Plan of the Baths of Mithras in Ostia (Italy) 123

27 Baths of Mithras in Ostia (Italy), alleged church in the northern part of the baths seen from the south. Stele with ChiRho sign on foreground 124

28 Baths of the Trinacria in Ostia (Italy), small pool in the frigidarium seen from the north. Opus listatum blocking a pre-existing niche or door 124

29 Plan of the Forum Baths in Ostia (Italy) 125

30 Forum Baths in Ostia (Italy), late antique Corinthian columns from the fourth heated room seen from the south 126

31 Forum Baths in Ostia (Italy), recess with tubuli in the south wall of the exit-tepidarium 126

32 Plan of the Baths of the Lighthouse in Ostia (Italy) 127

33 Plan of the Baths of the Philosopher in Ostia (Italy) 127

34 Baths of the Philosopher in Ostia (Italy), small pool at the beginning of the heated section seen from the east 128

35 Plan of the baths on the Isola Sacra (‘Terme di Matidia’) near Ostia 129

36 Plan of the Baths of the Capitolium in Cuicul (Algeria) 142

37 Plan of the Baths of the Filadelfes in Thamugadi (Algeria) 146

38 Plan of the Small East Baths in Thamugadi (Algeria) 147

39 Plan of the Baths of the Capitolium in Thamugadi (Algeria) 147

40 Plan of the Baths of the Donatist Cathedral in Thamugadi (Algeria) 150

41 Plan of the Baths of the Byzantine Fortress in Thamugadi (Algeria) 152

42 Plan of the Antonine Baths in Carthage (Tunisia) 153

43 Plan of the Large Baths in Sufetula (Tunisia) 161

44 Plan of Baths nr. 15 in Sufetula (Tunisia) 162

45 Plan of the Baths of House T in Ptolemais (Libya) 167

46 Plan of the Extra-muros Baths in Volubilis (Morocco) 175

47 Plan of the palace at Khirbet al-Mafjar (Palestine) with location of the baths 177

48 Baths of Khirbet al-Mafjar (Palestine), plan of the hypocaust system, furnace with reservoir 177

49 Plan of the Baths of al-Bara (Syria) in the Roman period 178

50 Plan of the Baths of al-Bara (Syria) in the Islamic period 178

51 Baths of al-Bara (Syria), cross-section of the furnace with superimposed boiler during the Islamic phase 179

52 Plan of the Baths of Halabiyya-Zenobia (Syria) 179

53 Plan of the Baths of Qasr al-Hayr East (Syria) 180

54 Plan of the Umayyad baths of Qusair Amra (Jordan) 181

55 Plan of the Umayyad baths attached to the Palace of the Caliph in Amman (Jordan) 181

56 Plan of the baths in Brad (Syria) 187

57 Plan of the baths in Serdjilla (Syria) 188

58 Plan of the North Baths in Volubilis (Morocco) 191

59 Plan of the thermal baths at Jebel Oust (Tunisia) with pools of different temperatures 193

60 Central Baths in Pompeii (Italy), detail of the small basin in the caldarium seen from the northwest 194

61 Baths along the Via Marciana in Ostia (Italy), seen from the west 270

62 Satellite imagery of Ostia (Italy), showing a street heading towards the Baths of Perseus. Also depicted are the Baths of Musiciolus, the Baths of Edificio b, the Baths of Porta Marina, the Small Baths along the Via Severiana and the Baths along the Via Marciana 271

63 Byzantine Baths in Ostia (Italy), detail of the mosaic of the courtyard 273

64 Baths on the via della Foce in Ostia (Italy), oval alveus of the caldarium seen from the southeast 274

65 Baths on the via della Foce, Ostia (Italy), detail of large tubulus found in the caldarium 276

66 Archaeological site of the Villa del Casale at Piazza Armerina (Sicily), with the Villa Baths and the Small South Baths 277

67 Small pool in a heated room of the Baths of the Lantern in Portus (Italy) 278

68 Reconstruction drawing in perspective view from the northeast of the Baths of Diocletian in Rome (Italy) 284

69 Frigidarium of the Baths of Diocletian in Rome (Italy), now turned into the Church of Santa Maria degli Angelli 285

70 Baths of Elagabalus in Rome (Italy), small east alveus of the caldarium seen from the west 288

71 Theatre of Volaterrae (Italy) with the late antique Vallebuona Baths in the peristyle square 295

72 Plan of the so-called ‘Temple of Minerva Medica’ in Rome (Italy), perhaps a bathhouse or, more likely, a heated reception hall 298

73 Plan of the alleged Baths of San Tommaso in Ticinum (Italy) 299

74 Archaeological site of the Villa of Theodoric in Galeata (Italy) 300

75 Plan of the Baths of Theodoric in Galeata (Italy) 300

76 Plan of the Villa Baths in Piazza Armerina (Sicily) 302

77 Plan of the Baths of Curinga (Italy) 304

78 Plan of the Baths of Herdonia (Italy) 305

79 Plan of the Baths of Misterbianco (Sicily) 306

80 Plan of the Baths of San Gaetano di Vada (Italy) 308

81 Plan of the House of the Coiedii in Suasa (Italy) 308

82 Plan of the Baths at Castel Porziano (Italy) 309

83 Plan of the House of Europe in Cuicul (Algeria) with semi-public bathhouse 317

84 Plan of the House of the Donkey in Cuicul (Algeria) with semi-public bathhouse 319

85 Plan of the House of Castorius in Cuicul (Algeria), with adjacent semi-public baths and private baths 320

86 Plan of phase 1 of the balnea privata in Carthage (Tunisia) 321

87 Sanctuary of Asclepius in Lambaesis (Algeria). The Small South Baths and the Sanctuary Baths can be identified 328

88 Plan of the Baths of Pompeianus in Oued Athmenia (Algeria) depicting the mosaic floors 330

89 Plan of the House North of the Capitolium in Thamugadi (Algeria) with adjacent bathhouse 338

90 Baths of the Laberii in Uthina (Tunisia), drawing of the mosaic of the frigidarium depicting Orpheus enchanting wild animals 344

91 Plan of the Baths of Sidi Ghrib (Tunisia) 346

92 Baths of Sidi Ghrib (Tunisia), different phases of use 347

93 Plan of the Baths of Baptistery in Cuicul (Algeria) 350

94 Plan of the ‘Church site’ in Tebessa Khalia (Algeria) with small baths (in box) 351

95 Plan of the Baths of Tebessa Khalia (Algeria) 352

96 Plan of the Basilica of Tipasa (Algeria) with adjacent baptistery and baths 353

97 Plan of the Baths of the Basilica in Tipasa (Algeria) 354

98 Plan of the Byzantine fortress in Thamugadi (Algeria) with location of the baths 355

99 Plan of the North Baths in Banasa (Morocco) 357

100 Plan of the Small West Baths in Banasa (Morocco) 357

101 Plan of the Baths of the Frescos in Banasa (Morocco) 358

102 Plan of Hadrian’s Baths in Leptis Magna (Libya) 361

103 Plan of the Hunting Baths in Leptis Magna (Libya) 362

104 Plan of the so-called ‘Unfinished Baths’ in Leptis Magna (Libya) with hypothetical reconstruction of the intended layout by Yvon Thébert 363

105 Plan of the Baths of the Schola in Leptis Magna (Libya) 364

106 Baths of the Schola in Leptis Magna (Libya), southern small apsidal pool in the frigidarium seen from the southwest 364

107 Plan of the church in the frigidarium of the West Baths in Mactaris (Tunisia) 365

108 Plan of the Large Baths in Madauros (Algeria) 366

109 Plan of the church in the frigidarium of the Small Baths of Madauros (Algeria) 367

110 Plan of the Baths of En-Nagazza (Libya) 368

111 Plan of the Baths of the Theatre in Sabratha (Libya) 371

112 Plan of the Large Baths in Thenae (Tunisia) 372

113 Plan of the Summer Baths in Thuburbo Maius (Tunisia) with late antique reorganisation 374

114 Plan of the Winter Baths in Thuburbo Maius (Tunisia) 375

115 Plan of the Baths of the Labyrinth in Thuburbo Maius (Tunisia) 376

116 Plan of the Baths of the Capitolium in Thuburbo Maius (Tunisia), with its late antique reorganisation 376

117 Plan of the baths in the House of Venus in Volubilis (Morocco) 379

118 Plan of the Baths of the House of the Works of Hercules in Volubilis (Morocco) 379

119 Plan of the Baths of the Western Quarter in Volubilis (Morocco) 380

120 Plan of the Baths of the House of the Sundial in Volubilis (Morocco) 380

121 Plan of the Late Antique and Byzantine Baths in Apollonia (Libya) 382

122 Plan of the Baths of Trajan in Cyrene (Libya), with the insertion of the Byzantine Baths 384

123 Plan of the Fortress Baths in Taucheira (Libya) 393

124 Kom al-Dikka Baths in Alexandria (Egypt), cross-section and plan of the ‘pit-hypocaust’ 399

125 Plan of the Kom al-Dikka Baths in Alexandria (Egypt), with pools of different temperatures 400

126 Kom al-Dikka Baths in Alexandria (Egypt), cross-section of a possible type of testudo in the caldarium 401

127 North Baths of Karanis (Egypt), cross-section (west-east) of the caldarium and praefurnium 408

128 Drawing of the wall heating in the North Baths of Karanis (Egypt) 408

129 Byzantine Baths of Marea (Egypt), drawings of the fragments of claustra found inside the baths 413

130 Plan of the chapel and baths in the monastery of Bawit (Egypt) 423

131 Plan of the late antique fortress of Abu Sha’ar (Egypt) with a bathhouse outside its walls 424

132 Plan of the Fortress Baths of Abu Sha’ar (Egypt) 425

133 Plan of the late antique fortress at Nag el-Hagar (Egypt) 425

134 Plan of the Fortress Baths of Nag el-Hagar (Egypt) 426

135 Plan of the Baths and cistern (right) at Mampsis (Israel) 438

136 Baths in Rehovot (Israel), drawing of the roof of the baths with the system of a cistern, gullies, windows and orifices 442

137 Plan of the possible baths in Nahf (Israel) 448

138 Plan of the possible baths in Qalandia (Palestine) 449

139 Plan of the Mount Scopus monastery in Jerusalem (Israel / Palestine) with the location of the bathhouse 450

140 Plan of the Fortress Bath of Yotvata (Israel) 453

Maps

1 Late Antique inscriptions mentioning baths and bathing in the Italian Peninsula 7

2 4th c. inscriptions mentioning baths or bathing found in North Africa 81

3 5th and 6th c. inscriptions mentioning baths or bathing found in North Africa 84

4 Location of the most important buildings and public areas in Rome (Imperial Period and Late Antiquity) 93

5 Location of the public baths in Rome 96

6 The number of balnea and thermae in each region of Rome according to the Curiosum / Notitia 105

7 General plan of Ostia with the location of baths and main roads 111

8 Public baths in Ostia in relation to the main aqueducts, public spaces and new Christian buildings at the end of the 4th c. 130

9 Public baths in Ostia in relation to the main aqueducts, public spaces and Christian buildings at the end of the 5th c. 131

10a Regio I in Ostia during the 4th c., with location of baths and other buildings that were newly built or still in use 132

10b Regio I in Ostia during the 5th c., with location of baths and other buildings that were newly built or still in use 133

11a Regio II in Ostia during the 4th c., with location of baths and other buildings that were newly built or still in use 133

11b Regio II in Ostia during the 5th c., with location of baths and other buildings that were newly built or still in use 134

12a Regio III in Ostia during the 4th c., with location of baths and other buildings that were newly built or still in use 134

12b Regio III in Ostia during the 5th c., with location of baths and other buildings that were newly built or still in use 135

13a Regio IV in Ostia during the 4th c., with location of baths and other buildings that were newly built or still in use 136

13b Regio IV in Ostia during the 5th c., with location of baths and other buildings that were newly built or still in use 137

14a Regio V in Ostia during the 4th c., with location of baths and other buildings that were newly built or still in use 138

14b Regio V in Ostia during the 5th c., with location of baths and other buildings that were newly built or still in use 139

15 Cuicul (Algeria) in the 4th c., with the location of public baths and the most important buildings 141

16 Cuicul (Algeria) in the 5th c., with the location of public baths and the most important buildings 144

17 Thamugadi (Algeria) at the end of the 4th c., with the location of public baths and the most important buildings 149

18 Thamugadi (Algeria) at the end of the 6th c., with the location of public baths and the most important buildings 151

19 Carthage (Tunisia) at the end of the 4th c., with the location of public baths and the most important buildings and public areas 153

20 Carthage (Tunisia) at the end of the 5th c., with the location of public baths and the most important buildings and public areas 156

21 Carthage (Tunisia) at the end of the 6th c., with the location of public baths and the most important buildings and public areas 157

22 Sufetula (Tunisia) at the end of the 4th c., with the location of public baths and the most important buildings 159

23 Sufetula (Tunisia) at the end of the 5th c., with the location of public baths and the most important buildings 163

24 Sufetula (Tunisia) at the end of the 6th c., with the location of public baths and the most important buildings 164

25 Ptolemais (Libya), plan of the 4th c. city with the location of public baths and the most important buildings 166

26 Ptolemais (Libya), plan of the 6th c. city with the location of public baths and the most important buildings 169

27 Scythopolis (Israel), plan of the 4th c. city with the location of public baths and the most important buildings 172

28 Scythopolis (Israel), plan of the 5th c. city with the location of public baths and the most important buildings 173

29 Scythopolis (Israel), plan of the 6th c. city with the location of public baths and the most important buildings 174

30 Umayyad baths in the Middle and Near East 176

31 Public baths in late antique Italy 211

32 Public baths in late antique North Africa 212

33 Late antique public baths in Cyrenaica and Egypt 214

34 Late antique public baths in Palestina 215

35 Ravenna in the 6th c., with location of baths and the most important public areas and buildings 281

36 Bulla Regia (Tunisia), location of public baths and the most important buildings 313

37 Sabratha (Libya), plan of the city with the location of public baths and the most important buildings 370

38 Thuburbo Maius (Tunisia), plan of the city with the location of public baths and the most important buildings 373

39 Volubilis (Morocco), plan of the city with location of public baths 378

40 Alexandria (Egypt), hypothetical reconstruction of the late antique city grid with the location of public baths 397

Graphs

1 Inscriptions mentioning baths or bathing from Italy and North Africa between the 4th and 7th c. AD 80

2 Late antique papyri and ostraca mentioning baths and bathing found in Egypt 87

3 Public baths in the different regions during the 4th c., based on the data from Appendix 3 (possible baths not included) 210

4 Public baths still in use in late antique Italy, based on the data from Appendix 3A 212

5 Public baths still in use in late antique North Africa, based on the data from Appendix 3B 213

6 Public baths in late antique Cyrenaica, based on the data from Appendix 3C 213

7 Public baths in late antique Egypt, based on the data from Appendix 3D 214

8 Public baths still in use in late antique Palestina, based on the data from Appendix 3E 216

9 Public baths in the different regions during the 5th c., based on the data from Appendix 3 (possible baths not included) 218

10 Public baths in the different regions during the 6th c., based on the data from Appendix 3 (possible baths not included) 219

11 Public baths in the different regions during the 7th c., based on the data from Appendix 3 (possible baths not included) 220

12 Total number of all late antique baths in use (new and continued use) per region and per century (possible baths and baths with an unknown construction date not included) 221

13 Newly built public baths in Egypt during the Greek-Hellenistic period, High Empire and Late Antiquity. The numbers derive from the most recent catalogue of public baths in Egypt (Redon (2017a)) 222

Table

1 Buildings in each of the regiones of Rome as presented by the Curiosum and the Notitia Regionum 102