Figures

0.1 India and western Asia 2

5.1 Map of localities in North India and Iran associated with Prince Mīrzā Zamān’s career 131

6.1 Nasabnāma of Fursī. Calcutta, Asiatic Society of Bengal, MS PSC 690, fols. 1b-2a, Exordium 161

6.2 Nasabnāma of Fursī. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, MS 89.159.4. Praise of Sultan Muḥammad-Qulī with a later illustration of Sultan ʿAbdallāh (r. 1627-72) 163

6.3 Kanz al-Lughat. Salar Jung Museum Library Hyderabad, MS Persian Lug. 113. Note showing Sulṭān-Muḥammad’s geneaology 191

6.4 Mas̱navīs of Jamālī. Salar Jung Museum Library, Hyderabad, MS Persian Tasawwuf 158. Note in Sulṭān-Muḥammad’s hand underlining the poet’s Qaraqoyunlu connection 192

6.5 ʿAbd Jaʿfar Jaʿfarī Tabrīzī, Zāʾicha-i Ṭāliʿ. Salar Jung Museum Library, Hyderabad, MS Persian U-S 28. Frontispiece illustrating the Aqqoyunlu sultan Yaʿqūb (right) and the astrologer (left) 193

7.1 100-toman banknote of the Imperial Bank of Persia, with the “Lion and Sun” vignette, 1896 209

7.2 Gold 20-abbasi coin of Āghā Muḥammad Khān Qājār, struck at Tehran, AH 1210 (Ashmolean Museum, HCR7414) 210

7.3 Safavid, temp. Ḥusayn I (r. 1694-1722), prestige civic copper bronze fulus (37mm, 17.44g), Isfahan mint, AH 1117 (Heritage World Coin Auctions, New York Signature Sale 302, Auction date: 6 January 2013, Lot number: 21764) 210

7.4 Jahāngīr (r. 1605-27), gold presentation Mohur with “Lion and Sun” on reverse, lion facing left (British Museum, AH1020/RY6; photograph by author) 212

7.5 Jahāngīr (r. 1605-27), gold presentation Mohur with “Lion and Sun” on reverse, lion facing right (British Museum, AH1020/RY6; photograph by author) 213

7.6 Jahāngīr (1605-1627), gold presentation Mohur with a seated portrait and “Lion and Sun”, Ajmer mint (British Museum, AH1023/RY8; photograph by author) 213

7.7 Jahāngīr receiving Prince Khurram back from a victorious campaign in Mewar by the artist Balchand (Pādshāhnāma, Royal Collection, Windsor, accession number RCIN 1005025.f) 216

7.8 Detail of Fig 7.7, showing footman carrying the banner 217

7.9 The Mughal siege of Qandahar, by the artist Payag (Pādshāhnāma, Royal Collection, Windsor, accession number RCIN 1005025.s) 218

7.10 Detail of Fig 7.9, showing soldiers carrying pennants 219

7.11 An imperial procession (in part), by the “Kashmiri Painter” (Pādshāhnāma, Royal Collection, Windsor, accession number RCIN 1005025.ai) 220

7.12 Detail of Fig 7.11, showing footmen carrying embroidered banners 221

7.13 William Baffin’s early map of India (British Library, acc. no. Maps K.Top.115.22, “William Baffin’s map of the Mughal Empire,” London: Thomas Sterne, 1619 222

7.14 Aqqoyunlu, bronze fals of Nūr al-Dīn Ḥamza b. Qarā Yülük ʿUthmān (r. 1438-44), (2.2g) (Stephen Album Rare Coins, Auction 27, Auction date: 19 January 2017, Lot number: 786) 223

7.15 Aqqoyunlu, anonymous bronze fals (2.72g), Mardin mint (Stephen Album Rare Coins, Auction 14, Auction date: 21 September 2012, Lot number: 755) 224

7.16 Golden Horde, Jānī Beg, AH 743-58/AD 1342-57, billon Pul (25mm, 6.93g), Khwarazm mint (Classical Numismatic Group, Electronic Auction 198, Auction date: 5 November 2008, Lot number: 349) 224

7.17 Ilkhanids, Abū Saʿīd Bahādur, AH 716-36/AD 1316-35, bronze fals (18mm, 1.56g), Mardin mint (Classical Numismatic Group, Electronic Auction 323, Auction date: 26 March 2014, Lot number: 638) 225

7.18 Ilkhanids, Arghūn, AH 683-90/AD 1284-91, silver dirham (2.51g), Tus mint (Gorny & Mosch Giessener Münzhandlung, Auction 161, Auction date: 11 October 2007, Lot number: 5781) 225

7.19 Artuqids of Mardin, al-Ṣāliḥ Ṣāliḥ I, AH 712-65/AD 1312-64. Bronze double fals (27mm, 5.94g), Mardin mint (Classical Numismatic Group, Auction 109, Auction date: 12 September 2018, Lot number: 796) 226

7.20 Artuqids of Mardin, al-Ṣāliḥ Ṣāliḥ I, AH 712-65/AD 1312-64, fals (1.69g), no mint (Wilkes & Curtis Ltd, Auction 11, Auction date: 13 June 2016, Lot number: 130) 227

7.21 Seljuqs of Rum, gold dinar of Ghiyās̠ al-Dīn Kaykhusraw II (r. 1237-46) (­Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 99.35.2379) 228

7.22 Seljuqs of Rum, gold dinar of Ghiyās̠ al-Dīn Kaykhusraw II (r. 1237-46), (4.48g) (American Numismatic Society, 1962.126.2) 228

7.23 Seljuqs of Rum, silver dirham of Ghiyās̠ al-Dīn Kaykhusraw II (r. 1237-46), Konya mint 229

7.24 Seljuqs of Rum, silver dirham of Ghiyās̠ al-Dīn Kaykhusraw II (r. 1237-46), Sivas mint 229

7.25 Silver dirham of Nāṣir al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Ḥasan Qarlugh (r. 1249-59), (2.55g) (Stephen Album Rare Coins, Auction 17, Auction date: 19 September 2013, Lot number: 546) 231

7.26 Billon jital of Nāṣir al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Ḥasan Qarlugh (r. 1249-59), (3.48g), Ghazna mint 234

7.27 Billon jital of Nāṣir al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Ḥasan Qarlugh (r. 1249-59), (3.52g), Kuraman mint 234

7.28 Bengal, gold tanka in the name of Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Sām, struck by Muḥammad Bakhtiyār Khaljī, AH 601/AD 1204, celebrating the conquest of Bengal as suggested by Devanagari legend below the “Horseman” (British Museum; photograph by author) 238

7.29 Bengal, temp. Muḥammad Bakhtiyār Khaljī (r. 1204-6), gold fractional tanka of 20 rati (17mm, 2.28g) in the name of Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Sām, sultan of Delhi (Classical Numismatic Group, Auction 105, Auction date: 10 May 2017, Lot number: 1118) 239

7.30 Bengal, temp. Muḥammad Bakhtiyār Khaljī, (r. 1204-6), gold fractional tanka of 20 rati, in the name of Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Sām, sultan of Delhi (J.P. Goenka collection, Kolkata/Mumbai, India; photograph by author) 239

7.31 Seljuqs of Rum, ʿIzz al-Dīn Qılıj Arslān II b. Masʿūd (r. 1155-92), bronze fals (20mm, 3.85g), “Horseman” type (Classical Numismatic Group, Electronic Auction 323, Auction date: 26 March 2014, Lot number: 549) 240

7.32 Bengal, silver tanka of Shams al-Dīn Iltutmish (r. 1210-35) (10.9g), “horseman archer” type (Private collection, Dubai; photograph by author) 242

7.33 Armenian/Seljuqs of Rum, silver tram/dirham in joint names of Hetʾum/Kaykhusraw II, Sis mint, dated AH 637/AD 1239-40 (2.90g), (St. James’s Auctions Ltd, Auction 38, Auction date: 29 September 2016, Lot number: 161) 244

7.34 Seljuqs of Rum, Rukn al-Dīn Qılıj Arslān IV, first sole reign (r. 1248-9), silver dirham (23mm, 2.77g), Sivas mint (Classical Numismatic Group, Auction 85, Auction date: 15 September 2010, Lot number: 1321) 244

8.1 Twin minarets, Adhai din ka Jhompara mosque, Ajmer © Richard Piran McClary 256

8.2 Tōraṇa gates, Rudra-Mahalaya Shiva temple, Siddhpur © Richard Piran McClary 258

8.3 Miḥrāb of the Shahi mosque, Khatu (left), and the Adhai din ka Jhompara mosque, Ajmer (right) © Richard Piran McClary 259

8.4 Miḥrāb and minbar, Chaurasi Khamba mosque, Kaman © Richard Piran McClary 260

8.5 South secondary miḥrāb (left) and central miḥrāb (right), Ukha Mandir, Bayana © Richard Piran McClary 261

8.6 Interior and miḥrāb, Sultan Ghari tomb, Delhi © Richard Piran McClary 264

8.7 Eastern façade and portal, Sultan Ghari tomb, Delhi © Richard Piran ­McClary 265

9.1 Jami Masjid of ʿAlī I ʿĀdilshāh, Bijapur © Sara Mondini 279

9.2 Jami Masjid of Sultan Ibrāhīm I, Bijapur © British Library Board Photo 1003/(1821) 280

9.3 Jami Masjid of ʿAlī I ʿĀdilshāh, Bijapur: prayer hall and qibla wall © Sara Mondini 282

9.4 Jami Masjid of ʿAlī I ʿĀdilshāh, Bijapur: miḥrāb © Sara Mondini 284

9.5 Jami Masjid of ʿAlī I ʿĀdilshāh, Bijapur: detail of left side of miḥrāb © Sara Mondini 286

9.6 Mecca Masjid miḥrāb, Bijapur © Sara Mondini 288

9.7 Jami Masjid of ʿAlī I ʿĀdilshāh, Bijapur: spandrels above miḥrāb © Sara Mondini­ 290

9.8 Jami Masjid of ʿAlī I ʿĀdilshāh, Bijapur: springing of arch of miḥrāb with inscriptions © Sara Mondini 291

10.1 Banya Bashi mosque in Sofia, Bulgaria. Built in 1576 by Mimar Sinan (d. 1588), the chief architect of sultans Süleyman, Selim II and Murad III. Photograph by Suraiya Faroqhi 307

10.2 The seaside villa of Hatice Sultan, sister to Sultan Selim III (r. 1789-1807), designed and depicted by Antoine Ignace Melling (1763-1831) © Staatsbibliothek Berlin Libri impr. rari fol. 325 309

10.3 The mosque of Aurangzeb (r. 1658-1707) in Benares/Varanasi – depicted by James Prinsep in 1834, when the mosque still possessed the two minarets that are now lost © Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg, Benares Illustrated (276 rei 2002/236), p. 22 311

10.4 The mausoleum of ʿAbd al-Raḥīm khān-i khānān (1556-1627) in Delhi. Photograph by Richard McClary 313

10.5 Agra fort. Photograph by Suraiya Faroqhi 328

11.1 Map of the Indian Ocean. Walters Sea Atlas (c. 1560), Walters Art Museum, W. 660, 7b-8a 352

11.2 Map of India. Katip Çelebi, Atlas Minor. Süleymaniye Library, MS ­Nuruosmaniye 2998, 401a 355

11.3 Map of the Indian Ocean basin. Katib Çelebi, Kitab-ı Cihannüma (­Qustantiniyya: Dar al-Ṭabaʻa al-Amire, 1145 [1732]), Süleymaniye Library, Hekimoğlu Ali Paşa 736, 96a 358

11.4 Map of Southeast Asia. Dimaşki, The Triumph of Islam and Joy in the Writing of Atlas Maior. MS Nuruosmaniye, 2996, 77b-78a 361

12.1 MS Perzsa O 87: Ownership stamp on the sixth front flyleaf, recto (courtesy of the Oriental Collection of the Library and Information Centre of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) 373

12.2 MS Perzsa O 87: A page from a Turkish-Persian word list (fol. 201v) (courtesy of the Oriental Collection of the Library and Information Centre of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) 378

12.3 MS Perzsa O 87: Scribe’s colophon at the end of Fużūlī’s Beng ü Bāde (fol. 295v) (courtesy of the Oriental Collection of the Library and Information Centre of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) 381