1 General map of the northern Indochinese Peninsula in 1901 3
2 Border Commissions in the Indochinese Peninsula, end nineteenth – early twentieth century 9
3 Pour le mémoire sur les limites du monde connu des anciens au-delà du Gange (detail), Jean-Baptiste d’Anville, 1763. Source: BNF [
4 Map of the Kingdom of Annam by Alexandre de Rhodes, 1653. Source: Voyages et missions du Père A. de Rhodes … (uncoloured at BNF [
5 Map of the Kingdom of Annam by Monseigneur Taberd, 1838 (detail). Source: BNF [
6 Itinerary no. 1, Mekong Exploration Commission by Francis Garnier, 1873. Source: BNF, Cartes et Plans, GE DD-1111 [
7 Map of French Indochina by Auguste Pavie, 1902. Source: Auguste Pavie, Atlas de la mission Pavie en Indochine, Paris, A. Challamel, 1903 [
8 The New Map of Burma and the Regions Adjacent by Henry Yule, 1857 (detail). Source: MEP, K MYA 3 46
9 James Wyld, Map of Burmah and Surrounding Countries, 1886 (detail). Source: MEP, K MYA 2 47
10 The triangulation of Indochina, 1913. Source: Henri Brenier, Essai d’atlas statistique de l’Indochine française, Hanoi, Imprimerie française d’Extrême-Orient, 1914, p. 139. [
11 The triangulation of British India (detail). Source: Index Chart to the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, 1912 64
12 Land surveys carried out in India in 1886. Source: BL, IOR, V/24/3984, Report on the operations of the Survey of India during 1885–1886, by Lieutenant-Colonel H. R. Thuillier, Calcutta, 1887 65
13 Land surveys carried out in India in 1909. Source: BL, IOR, V/24/4007, General report on the operations of the Survey of India during 1908–1909, by Colonel F. B. Longe, Calcutta, 1910 66
14 Photographs of the headquarters of the Geographical Departments:
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Photography and lithography office, built in 1889, Calcutta. Source: BL, IOR, V/24/3987, Report on the operations of the Survey of India, administered under the Government of India, during 1888–1889, Calcutta, 1890. Cover page 71
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Survey of India offices, Calcutta, January 1895. Source: BL, IOR, V/24/3992, Report on the operations of the Survey of India, administered under the Government of India, during 1893–1894, Calcutta, 1895 71
Royal Thai Survey office, Bangkok. Source: R. W. Giblin, “Royal Survey Work”, in Twentieth Century Impressions of Siam, London, Lloyds Greater Britain Publishing Company, 1908, p. 122 [
https://archive.org/stream/twentiethcentury00wrigrich#page/n125/mode/2up ] 71
15 Conventional signs used for the topographical map of French Indochina, edition of 1899. Source: ANOM, Asie 165, Indo-Chine [Carte topographique régulière] au 1:100 000, Hanoi, Service géographique de l’Indochine, 1899–1924 111
16 List of geodetic signals (detail). Source: ANV1, RST 73507, Triangulation du delta (1er fascicule), Hanoi, le 7 janvier 1902, par le lieutenant-colonel chef du Service géographique, Lubanski, p. 26 124
17 Geodetic marks. An inventory of geodetic triangulation marks provides all the requisite information. Source: ANV1, RST 73507, Triangulation du delta (1er fascicule), Hanoi, le 7 janvier 1902, par le lieutenant-colonel chef du Service géographique, Lubanski, p. 9 126
18 Geodetic marks, engraved on a zinc plate 127
19 Map of Cân Ấp showing Latin words among Vietnamese ones. Source: National Archives, Vietnam, Centre 1, SG 374, Carte de Cân Ấp (Vietnam) et Cam Mỏn (Laos) 157
20 Préfecture of Pou-Eurl Fou, by Gabriel Devéria. It should be noted that François Garnier’s presence in the area is mentioned (twice). Source: Gabriel Devéria, La frontière sino-annamite. Description géographique et ethnographique d’après des documents officiels chinois traduits pour la première fois, Paris, E. Leroux, 1886, p. 64 [
21 Copy of a Laotian map. Source: “Im Innern von Hinterindien (nach dem Französischen des Dr. Harmand)”, Globus, 38/14, 1880, p. 212 175
22 Map of Nam Định province, 1872. Source: BNF, Cartes et plans, Service hydrographique de la marine, portefeuille 180, division 2.22, feuille 1 177
23 Map of Ninh Bình province (detail). Source: BNF, Cartes et plans, Service hydrographique de la marine, portefeuille 180, division 2.22, feuille 3 177
24 Map of Hải Dương province (detail). Explanation in French: « Tong-kin. Carte annamite de la province d’ Hải Dương. Cours du Thay-Binh et du Cua Cam. Provenant de la citadelle d’Ha-Noï ». Source: BNF, Cartes et plans, Service hydrographique de la marine, portefeuille 180, division 2.22, feuille 4 178
25 Map of Từ Liêm district, Hoài Đức phủ, Hanoi province. Source: BNF, Cartes et plans, Service hydrographique de la marine, portefeuille 180, division 2.22, feuille 6 179
26 Map of Thái Nguyên province (detail). Source: BNF, Cartes et plans, Service hydrographique de la marine, portefeuille 180, division 2.22, feuille 13 180
27 Royal Geography of the Vietnamese province of Quan̉g Yên. Source: BNF, Cartes et plans, Service hydrographique de la marine, portefeuille 180, division 2.22, feuille 8 181
28 Roads in the region of Lang Son according to the Vietnamese maps, by the Service topographique de l’état-major du Corps expéditionnaire du Tonkin, Hanoi, 21 January 1885. Source: SHD, 10H3, dossier 9, sketch no. 53 or 61, scale roughly 1:300 000. Dimensions: 43,5 × 39,5 cm 182
29 Itinerary in the province of Lạng Sơn. Source: SHD, 10H6, 75 × 50 cm. By comparing a report, the places on the map, and the text “here lives the cai Vinh”, we can conclude that the map was drawn by the Vietnamese soldier asked by the French about the road, see chapter 4 184
30 Explanatory sketch 185
31 Vietnamese sketch with French annotations. Source: SHD, 10H6, 38 × 30 cm 186
32 Burmese map of the region of Chiang Mai. Source: RGS, mr Burma S.39, manuscrit no 44 187
33 “Reconnaissance carried out by the Né Nguyen Thu Lâm from 18 to 21 September [1884]”. Source: SHD, 10H6, Dossier 10. Cartes, levés et croquis, 1884 189
34 Map of the Shan States by a merchant, 1871. Source: RGS, mr Burma S.39 191
35 Itinerary from Traï-Lam to the ford of Thac-Lo. Source: SHD, 10H3, dossier 9, a sketch attached to the “Compte rendu de la reconnaissance exécutée par la première Compagnie du 2e Tonkinois, de Treï-lam au gué de Thac-lo en passant par Lang-Ouba” [“Report on the reconnaissance carried out by the First Company of the Second Tonkin Regiment, from Traï-Lam to the ford of Thac-Lo via Lang-Ouba”], 22 January 1885 198
36 Map of stages for Tonkin, May 1894. Source: BNF, GE C-1920 [
37 Map of stages for Tonkin, May 1899 (détail). Source: BNF, GE AA-2074 [
38 Conventional signs used for the Carte des communications du Tonkin [Map of Communications of Tonkin]. Source: ANV1, RST 73507, Annexe signée par Claude de Mussy, chef du Service géographique, à la lettre du général de division Coronnat au résident supérieur du Tonkin [“Letter from the Major General Coronnat to the Resident Superior of Tonkin, Annex, signed by Claude de Mussy, Head of the Service géographique”], Hanoi, 19 December 1902 206
39 Photo: Auguste Pavie surrounded by members of the Franco-British Commission of the Upper Mekong, 1895 (Front row: Gurkhas; Dr Lloyd; Mr Warry; Dr Lefèvre; Captain Walker; Mr Caillat; Vietnamese militiamen. Second row: Gurkhas; Mr Stirling; Lieutenant Thomassin; Pandits; Mr Scott; Mr Pavie; Mrs Scott; Colonel Woodthorpe; Mr Lefèvre-Pontalis; Tchioum; Ngin). Source: Auguste Pavie, Géographie et voyages, II, Exposé des travaux de la mission (troisième et quatrième périodes, 1889 à 1895), Paris, E. Leroux, 1906, p. 333 232
40 Sketch map showing suggested lines of demarcation of the Burma-China border, 8 March 1911 (detail). Source: British National Archives, Kew, FO/881/9885 235
41 Chinese map of the China-Vietnam border. Source: “Carte de la frontière sino-annamite”, EFEO, CAR. 2703 236
42 French map of the China-Vietnam border. Source: “Carte de la frontière sino-annamite, commission d’abornement, 1896–97”, BNF, Cartes et plans, GE C-18196, feuille 5 237
43 French sketch map of the boundary between Luang Prabang and Nam. Source: ANOM, GGI 24917, “Croquis de la région contestée”, par le Commissaire du Gouvernement Paul Macey, Pak Lay, 19 August 1898 238
44 Siamese sketch map of the boundary between Luang Prabang and Nam. Source: ANOM, GGI 24917 239
45 Administrative map of military territories and posts in Tonkin. Source: BNF, Cartes et Plans, GE C-1919 [
46 Request for an administrative border to be changed, 1895. Source: ANOM, GGI 65373, Dossier B18, Lettre du secrétaire général du gouverneur général de l’Indochine à propos de la cession de deux cantons de la province de Thái Nguyên au IIe territoire militaire [“Letter from the General Secretary of the General Governor of Indochina concerning the transfer of two cantons of the province of Thái Nguyên to the second military territory”], 11 August 1895 267
47 Map of the positions occupied by the “pirates”, 1889. Source: ANOM, GGI 22335, Lettre du général Bichot, commandant en chef les troupes de l’Indochine, au gouverneur général de l’Indochine, sur les bandes de pirates au Tonkin, accompagné d’une carte [“Letter from General Bichot, the Commander in Chief of the Troops of Indochina, to the Governor General of Indochina, on the gangs of pirates in Tonkin, with a map”], Hanoi, 18 September 1889 270
48 Ethnographic Map of Northern Tonkin on a scale of 1:100,000, by Étienne Lunet de Lajonquière. Source: Étienne Lunet de Lajonquiere, Ethnographie du Tonkin septentrional, Paris, E. Leroux, 1906, in fine 276