Chapter 6 Grappling with Diversity in Livestock-Related, Non-Agriculturist Archaeology in the Light of Genetic Research into the Lactase Persistence Allele, -14010*C, in Southern Africa

In: Africa, the Cradle of Human Diversity
Authors:
Thembi Russell
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Faye Lander
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Pages:
177–210
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004500228_008
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1 Introduction

The paper by Breton et al. (2014) demonstrating a shared ancestry between an eastern Africa population and the Khoe-speaking Nama of southern Africa has freed archaeologists to consider once again the place of demic diffusion in the spread of the first domestic animals without agriculture, to southern Africa. This follows its unpopularity as an explanation for change amongst the southern Africanist archaeological community in the 1990s and early 2000s (Kinahan, 1991; Sadr, 1998, 2003, 2008; Orton, 2015). It is difficult to separate demic diffusion from cultural diffusion using archaeology, as evidenced in debates worldwide.

This paper looks at the livestock-related, non-agriculturist archaeology in southern Africa in the light of the new genetic insights into the distribution of the lactase persistence allele in southern Africa. We focus on the spread of livestock without agriculture, a process that is connected to Khoe-language speakers. Agro-pastoralism, the spread of farming with speakers of Bantu-languages, is occasionally mentioned for comparative purposes. We briefly review the archaeological evidence for the last 3000 years BP in southern Africa. We then present the modern day southern African distribution of lactose persistence and compare this with the archaeological evidence for livestock-keeping. Finally we consider ethnographic and historic sources for milk-drinking in southern Africa.

2 Review of the Archaeological Evidence from Approximately 3000 BP, Southern Africa

Southern Africa is here defined as countries to the south of Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania. From about 2100 years ago, the first, very slight evidence for pottery and domestic stock appears at sites that are conventionally associated with the spread of livestock-keeping without agriculture (referred to as Later Stone Age (LSA) sites in this chapter) (see Lander and Russell (2018) for a detailed review of the data from 551 BC to AD 1056). The most securely identified and directly dated sheep specimen derives from the site Spoegrivier on the western half of southern Africa and dates to around 2100 years ago (Coutu et al., 2021). The earliest appearance of domestic cattle at sites conventionally associated with the spread of farmers speaking Bantu-languages occurs from about 1750 BP onwards (referred to as farmer sites in this chapter). At around 1500 years BP livestock counts reach a peak at Later Stone Age sites, with evidence of caprines outweighing cattle, whilst in the summer rainfall area, on the eastern side of southern Africa, many farmer sites have evidence of livestock-keeping in the form of cattle bones (Figure 6.1). From 1300 years BP, the number and distribution of farmer-related sites steadily increase, whilst the number of Later Stone Age livestock-related sites remain constant from this period onwards. Notably LSA sites have consistently low numbers of domestic livestock (Russell and Lander, 2015). Cattle are rare. The total cattle count (MNI) at all LSA sites is just 21, whilst that for caprines (mainly sheep) is 365 (Russell and Lander, 2015).

FIGURE 6.1
FIGURE 6.1

Archaeological evidence for livestock in Southern Africa, 551 BC to AD 1058

Contemporary with the first appearance of livestock is pottery. However, attempts to link it with the spread of livestock at Later Stone Age sites based on stylistic analysis have been unfruitful (Sadr and Sampson, 2006; Sadr, 2008; see also Smith, 2008, 2017). Lander and Russell (2020) suggest that pottery spread rapidly amongst hunter-gatherers from its first appearance in a process of cultural diffusion, which might also have carried domestic livestock, particularly sheep, across South Africa along already established exchange networks (see also Sadr, 2004; Russell, 2017).

3 Distribution of the Southern African Lactase Persistence Allele, -14010*C Compared to the Archaeological Evidence for Livestock

The presence of the east African lactase persistence allele, -14010*C, amongst present-day southern African populations is important because it signifies the presence of a proto-historic, fresh-milk-drinking pastoral population in southern Africa, and in the case of the Nama, a degree of relatedness to an East African source population (Breton et al., 2014; Macholdt et al., 2014). In southern Africa, 59 ethnic population groups have been screened for the LP allele (Table 6.1 and Figure 6.2) (Coelho et al., 2009; Tornianen et al., 2009; Breton et al., 2014; Macholdt et al., 2014; Jones et al., 2015; Pinto et al., 2016). These include Afrikaans-, Khoesan- and Bantu- language-speakers from agro-pastoralist, hunter-gatherer and agriculturist communities. The geographical coverage includes parts of Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Zambia, Kingdom of Eswatini, Mozambique and South Africa (Figure 6.3).

TABLE 6.1

The frequency of the East African - lactase persistence allele in Southern Africa
Map code Ethnic group Subsistence base, language group, ref. N of individuals Sample region Decimal latitude Decimal longitude -14010*C freq. Ref.
1 Nama Pastoralist Khoe Breton et al. 2014 22 Windhoek, Namibia −22,5624 17,06599 0,357 Breton et al. (2014) Macholdt et al. (2014)
2 Askham Coloured Not provided Khoe – North Breton et al. 2014 20 Askham, Northern Cape, South Africa −26,9834 20,78333 0,225 Breton et al. (2014)
3 Wellington Coloured Not provided Afrikaans Breton et al. 2014 20 Wellington, Western Cape, South Africa −33,6818 19,01023 0,1 Breton et al. (2014)
4 Colesberg Coloured Not provided Afrikaans Breton et al. 2014 20 Colesberg, Northern Cape, South Africa −30,8388 25,07629 0,025 Breton et al.(2014)
5 /Gui and //Gana Hunter-gatherer Khoe Breton et al. 2014 20 Kutse Game Reserve, Kalahari, Botswana −23,4223 24,04879 0,071 Breton et al. (2014)
5 //Gana Hunter-gatherer Khoe Macholdt et al. 2014 10 Kutse Game Reserve, Kalahari, Botswana −23,4223 24,04879 0,2 Macholdt et al. (2014)
5 /Gui Hunter-gatherer Khoe Macholdt et al. 2014 17 Kutse Game Reserve, Kalahari, Botswana −23,4223 24,04879 0,088 Macholdt et al. (2014)
6 Khwe Hunter-gatherer Khoe Breton et al. 2014 19 Schmidtsdrif Northern Cape, South Africa −28,8134 24,10132 0,029 Breton et al. (2014)
6 Khwe Hunter-gatherer Khoe Breton et al. 2014 19 Rootfontein, Namibia −19,6113 18,10939 0,029 Breton et al. (2014)
7 Ju/’hoansi Hunter-gatherer Ju - Northeast - Ju/’hoan Breton et al. 2014 20 Tsumkwe, Namibia −19,6009 20,50384 0,029 Breton et al. (2014)
8 Ju|hoan_ North Hunter-gatherer Kx’a Macholdt et al. 2014 21 North West, Botswana −20,5814 21,67013 0,024 Macholdt et al. (2014)
9 Ju|hoan South Hunter-gatherer Kx’a Macholdt et al. 2014 26 Ghanzi, Botswana border with Namibia −21,1943 21,06119 0,058 Macholdt et al. (2014)
10 !Xun Hunter-gatherer Ju - Northwest - /Xũu Breton et al. 2014 20 Schmidtsdrif, Northern Cape, South Africa −28,8134 24,10119 0,038 Breton et al. (2014)
10 !Xun Hunter-gatherer Ju - Northwest - /Xũu Breton et al. 2014 - Grootfontein, Namibia −19,6113 18,10939 0,038 Breton et al. (2014)
20 !Xuun Hunter-gatherer Kx’a Macholdt et al. 2014 19 Nyae Nyae, Namibia −19,7057 20,49703 0,053 Macholdt et al. (2014)
47 !Xuun Hunter-gatherer Kx’a Pinto et al. 2016 - Mupa, Angola −16,1831 15,76708 0,014 Pinto et al. (2016)
11 Karretjie People Hunter-gatherer and herder /Xam descendants Breton et al. 2014 20 Colesberg, Northern Cape, South Africa −30,8388 25,07629 0,083 Breton et al. (2014)
12 ≠Khomani Hunter-gatherer herders Germanic Tuu Breton et al. 2014 20 Askham, Northern Cape, South Africa −26,9834 20,78333 0,11 Breton et al. (2014)
13 Herero Farmer and herder western Bantu Breton et al. 2014 14 Windhoek, Namibia −17,0624 17,06599 0 Breton et al. (2014)
14 Herero Pastoralist western Bantu Macholdt et al. 2014 21 Windhoek, Namibia −22,5624 17,06599 0,071 Macholdt et al. (2014) (see Torniainen et al. 2009 and Breton et al. 2014)
38 Kuvale/ Herero Pastoralist west Savanna Bantu Coelho et al. 2009 Namibe, Angola −16,0277 12,43632 0,06 Coelho et al. (2009) (see Alves et al. 2011)
42 Kuvale Farming with some pastoralism west Savanna Bantu Pinto et al. 2016 - Namibe, Angola [1 sample location] −14,5436 13,10684 0,037 Pinto et al. (2016) (see Coelho et al. 2009)
42 Kuvale Farming with some pastoralism west Savanna Bantu Pinto et al. 2016 - Namibe, Angola [2 sample location] −15,3969 12,83899 0,037 Pinto et al.(2016) (see Coelho et al. 2009)
42 Kuvale Farming with some pastoralism west Savanna Bantu Pinto et al. 2016 - Namibe, Angola [3 sample location] −15,5753 12,76128 0,037 Pinto et al. (2016) (see Coelho et al. 2009)
15 Sotho-Tswana and Zulu Agropastoralist farmer southeastern Bantu Breton et al. 2014 16 (Sotho-Tswana) 25 (Zulu) Various regions, South Africa −27,9865 29,86269 0,1 Breton et al. (2014)
16 Taa-East Hunter-gatherer Tuu Macholdt et al. 2014 11 Kgalagadi, Botswana −24,3548 22,81767 0,045 Macholdt et al. (2014)
17 Taa-North Hunter-gatherer Tuu Macholdt et al. 2014 11 Kgalagadi, Botswana −23,59 21,61049 0 Macholdt et al. (2014)
18 Taa-West Hunter-gatherer Tuu Macholdt et al. 2014 20 Kgalagadi, Botswana −24,7803 20,10442 0,025 Macholdt et al. (2014)
19 ǂHoan Hunter-gatherer Kx’a Macholdt et al. 2014 7 Kgalagadi, Botswana −24,3368 22,34 0 Macholdt et al. (2014)
21 ║Ani Hunter-gatherer Khoe Macholdt et al. 2014 11 North West, Botswana −18,5167 21,94934 0,091 Macholdt et al. (2014)
22 Buga Hunter-gatherer Khoe Macholdt et al. 2014 9 North West, Botswana −18,3716 21,85806 0 Macholdt et al. (2014)
23 ║Xo Hunter-gatherer Khoe Macholdt et al. 2014 19 Caprivi Strip −17,9231 22,72381 0,079 Macholdt et al. (2014)
24 Damara Hunter-gatherer and pastoralist Khoe Macholdt et al. 2014 34 Kunene Region, Namibia −20,4608 14,01402 0,044 Macholdt et al. (2014)
25 Haiǁom Hunter-gatherer Khoe Macholdt et al. 2014 40 Kunene Region, Namibia −19,6687 14,70835 0,088 Macholdt et al. (2014)
26 Naro Hunter-gatherer Khoe Macholdt et al. 2014 19 Ghanzi, Botswana −22,01 21,23226 0,053 Macholdt et al. (2014)
27 Shua Hunter-gatherer Khoe Macholdt et al. 2014 27 Makgadikgadi, Botswana −20,5509 25,81031 0,074 Macholdt et al. (2014)
28 Tshwa Hunter-gatherer Khoe Macholdt et al. 2014 15 Makgadikgadi, Botswana −21,3433 26,04308 0,167 Macholdt et al. (2014)
29 Himba Pastoralist west Savanna Bantu Macholdt et al. 2014 16 Skeleton Coast, Namibia −19,5689 13,67961 0,125 Macholdt et al. (2014)
41 Himba Pastoralist west Savanna Bantu Pinto et al. 2016; Macholdt et al. 2014 - Namibe, Angola [1 sample location] −17,0017 12,43598 0,087 Pinto et al. (2016) (see Macholdt et al. 2014)
41 Himba Pastoralist west Savanna Bantu Pinto et al. 2016; Macholdt et al. 2014 - Namibe, Angola [2 sample location] −16,8911 12,43598 0,087 Pinto et al. (2016) (see Macholdt et al. 2014)
30 Kgalagadi Agropastoralist southeastern Bantu Macholdt et al. 2014 20 Kgalagadi, Botswana −24,7289 22,70295 0 Macholdt et al. (2014)
31 Tonga Agriculturist southeastern Bantu Macholdt et al. 2014 17 southern Zambia −17,7183 26,82519 0 Macholdt et al. (2014)
32 Tswana Agropastoralist southeastern Bantu Macholdt et al. 2014 18 Kweneng, southern Botswana −24,3324 25,6049 0,028 Macholdt et al. (2014) (see Breton et al. 2014)
33 Nkoya Agropastoralist eastern Bantu Macholdt et al. 2014 16 Zambia −14,6633 25,50005 0,031 Macholdt et al. (2014)
34 Wambo Agriculturist western Bantu Macholdt et al. 2014 8 Northern Nambia −17,7569 16,63925 0 Macholdt et al. (2014)
35 !Xhosa Agropastoralist southeastern Bantu Torniainen et al. 2009 109 Eastern Cape and western Cape, South Africa −33,1477 26,54454 0,128 Torniainen et al. (2009)
35 !Xhosa Agropastoralist southeastern Bantu Ranciaro et al. 2014 16 Western Cape, South Africa −34,079 19,10157 0,1429 Ranciaro et al. (2014)
36 Venda Agropastoralist southeastern Bantu Ranciaro et al. 2014 18 Thohoyandou, South Africa −23,1016 30,59716 0 Ranciaro et al. (2014)
37 Ovim-bundu Mostly agriculturists (cattle raising not crucial for subsistence) west Savanna Bantu Coelho et al. 2009 - Namibe, Angola −14,733 13,24521 0,01 Coelho et al. (2009)
39 Nyaneka-Nkhumbi Agropastoralist (predominantly cattle raisers) west Savanna Bantu Coelho et al. 2009 - Namibe, Angola −15,1194 12,71634 0,03 Coelho et al. (2009)
40 Guang-uela Agropastoralist west Savanna Bantu Coelho et al. 2009 - Namibe, Angola −15,44 12,92882 0 Coelho et al. (2009)
43 Kwepe Shepherd/livestock-keeper Khoe-Kwadi (recently replaced by Kuvale) Pinto et al. 2016 - Namibe, Angola [1 sample location] −15,8062 12,1081 0,044 Pinto et al. (2016)
43 Kwepe Shepherd/livestock-keeper Khoe-Kwadi (recently replaced by Kuvale) Pinto et al. 2016 - Namibe, Angola [2 sample location] −15,8274 12,45268 0,044 Pinto et al. (2016)
44 Kwisi Hunter-gatherer (recently cattle-keepers) west Savanna Bantu Pinto et al. 2016 - Namibe, Angola [1 sample location] −15,7196 12,45046 0,175 Pinto et al. (2016)
44 Kwisi Hunter-gatherer (recently cattle-keepers) west Savanna Bantu Pinto et al. 2016 - Namibe, Angola [2 sample location] −15,5978 12,73733 0,175 Pinto et al. (2016)
45 Twa Hunter-gatherer (recently cattle-keepers) west Savanna Bantu Pinto et al. 2016 - Namibe, Angola [1 sample location] −15,8536 12,12054 0,194 Pinto et al. (2016)
45 Twa Hunter-gatherer (recently cattle-keepers) west Savanna Bantu Pinto et al. 2016 - Namibe, Angola [2 sample location] −16,8092 12,50899 0,194 Pinto et al. (2016)
46 Tjimba Hunter-gatherer (cattle-less pastoralists) west Savanna Bantu Pinto et al. 2016 - Namibe, Angola −17,1096 12,69041 0,233 Pinto et al. (2016)
48 Yao Agriculturist Kaskazi–speaking Pinto et al. 2016 - Northern Mozambique −12,9998 35,30324 0 Pinto et al. (2016) (see Alves et al. 2011)
49 Nyanja Agriculturist southeastern Bantu Pinto et al. 2016 - Mozambique −14,9577 34,16792 0 Pinto et al. (2016) (see Alves et al. 2011)
50 Makua Agriculturist southeastern Bantu Pinto et al. 2016 - Mozambique −15,2267 39,23246 0 Pinto et al. (2016) (see Alves et al. 2011)
51 Tswa Mixed agriculturist southeastern Bantu Pinto et al. 2016 - Mozambique −21,4492 35,00139 0 Pinto et al. (2016) (see Alves et al. 2011)
52 Shangaan Mixed agriculturist southeastern Bantu Pinto et al. 2016 - Mozambique −24,8958 32,98332 0,022 Pinto et al. (2016) (see Alves et al. 2011)
53 Chopi Agriculturist southeastern Bantu Coelho et al. 2009 3 Mozambique −24,792 34,37146 0 Coehlo et al. (2009) (see Alves et al. 2011; Pinto et al. 2016)
54 Ronga Agriculturist southeastern Bantu Coelho et al. 2009 15 Southern Mozambique −26,345 32,50994 0 Coehlo et al. (2009) (see Alves et al. 2011; Pinto et al. 2016)
55 Sena Agriculturist southeastern Bantu Coelho et al. 2009 2 Mozambique −17,7261 34,95491 0 Coehlo et al. (2009) (see Alves et al. 2011; Pinto et al. 2016)
56 Ndau Mixed agriculturist southeastern Bantu Coelho et al. 2009 15 Mozambique −19,3029 34,55766 0 Coehlo et al. (2009) (see Alves et al. 2011; Pinto et al. 2016)
57 Chwabo Agriculturist southeastern Bantu Coelho et al. 2009 4 Mozambique −17,1928 36,45974 0 Coehlo et al. (2009) (see Alves et al.2011; Pinto et al. 2016)
58 Shona Mixed agriculturist southeastern Bantu Coelho et al. 2009 1 Harare, Zimbabwe −17,9233 30,95064 0 Coelho et al. (2009)
59 Swazi Agropastoralist southeastern Bantu Segal et al. 1987 12 Mbabane, Eswatini −26,3323 31,15249 0 Segal et al. (1987) (see Holden and Mace 2009).
FIGURE 6.2
FIGURE 6.2

Map showing the distribution of modern East and Southern African populations screened for the East African LP allele -14010*C

FIGURE 6.3
FIGURE 6.3

Map showing the distribution of the East African lactase persistence allele in Southern African

The lactase persistence allele reflects the continuous consumption of fresh milk from one generation to the next (Tishkoff et al., 2007; Breton et al., 2014; Ranciaro et al., 2014). Its presence is thus indicative of a group that either keeps livestock and drinks fresh milk or gets fresh milk regularly from a continuous relationship with livestock-keepers.

In the review of LP -14010*C allele amongst extant southern African population groups, twelve have the allele at frequencies of 10% or above (Table 6.1). The highest incidence is found amongst the Namibian Nama Khoe-speaking pastoralists (35.7%) (Breton et al., 2014; Macholdt et al., 2014). Nine of these groups are found in northern/north-western parts of southern Africa. The remaining three are distinctive. Two are eastern Bantu-language speaking groups (Map Code 15 and 35, Figure 6.4). The third is an Afrikaans-speaking community of mixed Khoesan ancestry, sampled in the western Cape, South Africa (Breton et al., 2014) (map code 3, Figure 6.4).

FIGURE 6.4
FIGURE 6.4

Map showing Southern African populations with the highest prevalence of LP Allele -14010*C

Three patterns in the distribution of the LP allele stand out. These are considered in relation to the archaeological evidence for livestock-keeping.

FIGURE 6.5
FIGURE 6.5

Archaeological evidence for livestock-keeping with and without agriculture compared to the distribution of the lactase persistence allele

  1. The lactase persistence allele occurs in its highest frequencies amongst livestock-keepers without agriculture or recent livestock-keepers without agriculture, irrespective of the language group.

    People have retained the ability to digest milk in the western, drier half of southern Africa for at least the last 1300 years (Breton et al., 2014). This area is unsuitable for the cultivation of the indigenous summer rainfall crops, sorghum and millet, due to the low rainfall. This confirms Simoons (1970, 695) argument that the “Low incidence of intolerance, it is held, would develop over time in a group that has an abundant milk supply, that has alternate foodstuffs inadequate in amount and quality, and that consumes milk in lactose-rich forms.” The contemporary distribution of groups with lactase persistence matches the distribution of Later Stone Age sites with evidence of livestock (Figure 6.5) – confirming the strong association of the ability to digest lactose with pastoralism (Holden and Mace, 1997). The ethnographic and historic record of milk consumption – in its fresh lactose-rich form - amongst the Khoe supports this association (Lombard and Parson, 2015).

    Unique to the southernmost part of southern Africa is a winter rainfall zone that stretches from the Cape northwards into Namibia (Figure 6.1). Seasonal movement across its boundaries to the summer rainfall zone would have provided pastoralists with all year round rainfall that would be necessary for specialized milch pastoralism to flourish, mimicking the bimodal rainfall that is seen as central to the rise of pure milch pastoralism in East Africa 3000 years ago (Marshall, 1990; Marchant et al., 2018; Russell, 2020).

  2. Southern Africa’s Bantu-language speaking groups have a low incidence of the allele as compared to Khoe-speaking groups.

    This low incidence might reflect (1) the absence of a history of livestock-keeping. The trypanosomiasis belt excludes much of tropical Africa as a cattle-keeping area (Simoons, 1974). Where it is endemic in southern Africa we find Bantu-language speaking matrilineal farmers without livestock (Holden and Mace, 2003) (Figure 6.6), or (2) the absence of fresh milk consumption rather than the absence of livestock. The cultural practice of drinking sour milk products is well documented amongst southern African Bantu-speaking peoples (Table 6.2). It is hard to find any record of the consumption of fresh milk by southern Bantu-language speakers with the exception of herd boys, who may drink milk directly from cows when out herding, and fresh milk sometimes given to children. Fermented, sour milk products have a reduced lactose content making them more digestible to lactase deficient groups (Holden and Mace, 1997). Segal et al. (1983), in their study of lactase persistence in southern African population groups show that raw milk, fermented in a gourd in the traditional way, contains 2.6% lactose, compared to the 4.7% lactose of full cream fresh milk. Thirdly, (3) those southern African Bantu-language speakers without the LP allele might represent a demic migration from the area of northern Angola, Gabon, and Congo in a southeastward direction towards South Africa, rather than from an origin in East Africa. The archaeological evidence, whilst fairly robust for the connection between East Africa and South Africa (Parkington and Hall, 2012), is unhelpful for tracing connections to western-central Africa. Such evidence for a western stream of demic migration from Angola to South Africa, as suggested by Huffman (2007) on the basis of pottery styles is weak and must be revisited (Parkington and Hall, 2012; Lander and Russell, 2018). The Kalundu pottery tradition of the western stream, purporting to link pottery found at the coastal midden site of Benfica, in Angola to sites in the eastern half of South Africa, includes very few sites and the basis of the argument is unclear (cf. Huffman, 2007) (Table 6.3).

    And lastly, (4) it might reflect interaction and proximity with a milch pastoralist group. The high incidence of the LP allele among the Xhosa, Sotho-Tswana and Zulu agro-pastoralists is suggestive of a long history of interaction between their ancestral groups and Khoe pastoralists. These Bantu-language speaking agro-pastoralists lived close to the historically known territory of Khoe pastoralists along the natural boundary to farmer expansion, the summer rainfall boundary. This boundary is also seen in the archaeological distribution of LSA sites as compared to farmer sites (Figure 6.1) (Parking and Hall, 2012). Genetic and linguistic studies reflect a similar pattern of the long interaction of Khoisan and Bantu-speaking groups (Pakendorf et al., 2017).

  3. Non-Khoe-speaking hunter-gatherers have low levels of the allele. This is not unexpected as this is one of the few examples of foragers who resisted and rejected the more labour intensive economies of animal domestication and crop production (Russell and Lander, 2015). More interesting and requiring further investigation is why Khoe-speaking hunter-gatherers, in particular, have the LP allele. Examples of hunter-gatherers with the LP allele, in frequencies of up to 20%, are the Khoe-speaking Gui and Gana of the Kutse Game Reserve, in central Botswana (Table 6.1). Although they live by hunting and gathering, their livestock keeping is well-documented (Ikeya, 1993; Osaki, 1984; 1990; Sugawara, 1991; Tanaka, 1969, 1976). Livestock, predominately goats, are never slaughtered but are kept as a social rather than a subsistence strategy, to build alliances and to use in economic exchanges (Russell, 2017). The low levels of livestock at LSA sites might reflect such a livestock-keeping and circulating system. Milking would fit easily within such a system, although little milking was recorded amongst these ethnographically observed hunter-gatherer groups (Ikeya (1993) records 200 ml of milk being collected on a particular day), there is evidence of them following milking practices. For example, young animals are separated from their mothers during the day and dung is applied to their udders to deter feeding. Goat-keeping within a similar system is also mentioned by Guenther (1986), who notes the drinking of fresh goats’ milk among the Nharo of Ghanzi, Botswana.

TABLE 6.2

List of ethnographic and historic accounts of the consumption of milk amongst Southern African groups
Group Country Sour cows’s milk Fresh cows’s milk Reference
Swazi Eswatini Emasi (mainly drunk by children) Herdboys in the veld milk directly into their mouths (Jones 1963: 75) Simatende et al. 2015; Kuper 1986: 44; Jones 1963
Xhosa Eastern Cape, South Africa Amasi Milk ‘always used sour’ (Hunter 1961:105) Beukes et al. 2001; Hunter 1961; Shaw and van Wermelo 1974: 247, 250
Zulu South Africa Amasi Hardly ever drank “green milk”
Southern Sotho South Africa Mafi Beukes et al. 2001
Botswana Madila Ohiokpehai and Jagow 1998
South Africa Sethemi Kebede et al. 2007
Zambia Mabisi Jans et al. 2017
Nharo Ghanzi, Botswana Fresh goats’ milk Guenther 1986
Gwi Kutse, Botswana Fresh goats’ milk Ikeya 1993, Sugwara 1991
Gana Kutse, Botswana Fresh goats’ milk Ikeya 1993, Sugwara 1991
Hunter-gatherer stock- keepers Nyae Nyae, Nambia Sour milk products Marshall and Ritchie, 1984
Nama Richtersveld, Northern Cape, South Africa Soured milk Schapera 1930
TABLE 6.3

Sites with pottery which fit Huffman’s (2007) western stream of demic diffusion among Bantu-language speaking farmers
Site, Country, site type Radiocarbon date Calibrated Date Western stream, kalundu tradition, pottery type Reference
Benfica, Angola Coastal shell midden 1810±50 Pta-212 AD 212–322 Kalundu Dos Santos and Ervedosa 1970; Vogel and Marais 1971; Huffman 2005, 2007
Gundu, Zambia Inland open-air 1510±85 GX-1114 AD 480–658 Kamangoza type pottery showing affiliation to Kalundu, Dambwa and Kumadzulo ware and has origins with Naviundu pottery in the Congo. Huffman 1989, 2007
Wosi, South Africa Inland open-air riverside 1460±50 Pta-4100 AD 592–662 Msuluzi Van Schalkwyk 1994
Lydenburg Head site, South Africa Inland open-air 1460±50 Pta-328 AD 592–662 Kalundu or Matola Maggs 1980, Evers et al. 1982, Whitelaw 1996
Zambezi Farm, Zambia Inland open-air 1410±130 N-1140 AD 544–856 Pottery similar to Kalundu, Dambwa and Kumadzulo ware. Vogel 1973
Mhlopeni, South Africa Inland open-air riverside 1400±50 Pta-2878 AD 636–765 Msuluzi Maggs and Ward 1984
Divuyu, Botswana Inland open-air 1400±70 Beta-13260 AD 635–766 Divuyu Turner 1987; Denbow 2011
KwaGandaganda, South Africa Inland open-air riverside 1395±60 Wits-1918 AD 639–765 Msuluzi Whitelaw 1994 a,b.
Mamba, South Africa Inland open-air riverside 1390±50 Pta-4093 AD 643–765 Msuluzi Van Schalkwyk 1994
Msuluzi Confluence, South Africa Inland open-air riverside 1370±30 Pta-2193 AD 654–763 Msuluzi Maggs 1980
Magogo, South Africa Inland open-air riverside 1360±50 Pta-2874 AD 659–765 Msuluzi Maggs 1984
Magarape, Botswana Inland open-air riverside 1350±80 KN-2641 AD 648–841 Mzonjani type pottery or Kalundu type pottery. Cambpell et al. 1996; Huffman 2009
Mpame, South Africa Coastal open-air 1340±60 Pta-2019 AD 657–830 Msuluzi Vogel and Fuls 1999
Bisoli, Botswana Inland open-air 1340±60 Wits-1099 AD 657–830 Bisoli Denbow and Wilmsen 1986; Campbell et al. 1996; Huffman 2007
Nqoma, Botswana Inland open-air 1290±60 Beta-13257 AD 685–860 Divuyu and Xaro Wilmsen 1989, 2011; Denbow 2011
Ntsitsana, South Africa Inland open-air riverside 1290±50 Pta-4684 AD 685–858 Mzuluzi and Ndondondwane Prins and Granger 1993
Nanda, South Africa Inland open-air riverside 1275±60 Wits-1917 AD 690–880 Msuluzi Whitelaw 1993
Kulubele , South Africa Inland open-air riverside 1250±40 Pta-5865 AD 773–881 Mzuluzi pottery and/or Ndondondwane Binneman et al. 1992
Kanono Mulapo, Namibia shell midden site 1230±50 Pta-8656 AD 770–960 Kalomo pottery showing similarities to Kalundu and Gundu Kinahan 2013; Huffman 1989
Ndondondwane , South Africa Inland open-air riverside 1220±50 Pta-238 AD 774–819 Ndondondwane Maggs 1984, Van Schalkwyk et al. 1997
SK17, South Africa Inland open-air 1210±50 Pta-3507 AD 777–967 Garonga pottery or Kalundu (Ndondondwane/Lydenburg) pottery Meyer 1984; Plug 1989; Huffman 2007
Kalundu Mound , Zambia Inland open-air 1160±90 SR-41 AD 780–1020 Kalundu Fagan 1967
Dombashaba, Botswana Inland hilltop 1150±80 I-13746 AD 859–1024 Bisoli Huffman 2005, 2007
Ntshekane, South Africa Inland open-air riverside 1150±45 Pta-1058 AD 893–989 Ntshekane Maggs and Michael 1976
Kamangoza, Zambia Inland open-air 1015±105 N-419 AD 987–1185 Kamangoza pottery showing affiliation to Kalundu, Dambwa and Kumadzulo ware. Vogel 1971
Isamu Pati, Zambia Inland open-air 910±90 SR-31 AD 1046–1265 Kalomo pottery showing similarities to Kalundu and Gundu (Naviundu from Congo (western origin) is an ancestor to Gundu pottery) Huffman 1989, 2005
FIGURE 6.6
FIGURE 6.6

Archaeological evidence for livestock-keeping at approximately 1000 – 1200 BP and the lactase persistence allele overlaid on the present-day distribution of African trypanosomiasis

4 Conclusions

The archaeological distribution for livestock remains over the last 2100 years shows the predominance of cattle-keeping among farmers in the eastern half of the sub-continent and sparser, yet continuous, caprine-keeping among Later Stone Age livestock-keepers in the low rainfall areas to the west. We might at a first glance expect that lactase persistence might dominate on the eastern side of southern Africa. Genetic research shows that the reverse is true. The east African lactase persistence allele, -14010*C, is overwhelmingly found among pastoralist people in the western parts, irrespective of their language group. To explain this pattern, we turn to the ethnographic and historic record, which show the cultural practice among Bantu-speakers of drinking milk only in its fermented, lactose- reduced form. This is sometimes through its spontaneous fermentation in a gourd, at room temperature over a number of days, or through the addition of certain plants. Ethnography helps to explain why some hunter-gatherers have a high incidence of lactase persistence: they are those who have seen the social value of livestock in exchange networks, with small quantities of milk drinking. They remain overwhelmingly foragers for subsistence.

Archaeological evidence for the large herds of Khoe-owned cattle, observed historically, from the late 16th century onwards in the western and eastern Cape, which drew sailors and then settlers to southern Africa, has not been found. The archaeological picture is incomplete. For example, from 1652 to 1699, careful mercantile records show that 20 000 cattle and 40 000 sheep were traded with the Cape Khoe by the passing ships of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) (Ross, 2012). The contrast with the total 21 cattle and 365 caprine bones found across the entire 2100 year period of the archaeology of the Later Stone Age livestock-keepers, is useful as an example of just how fragmentary the archaeological record can be (Russell and Lander 2015).

There are unresolved differences between and within the genetic and the archaeological findings. For example, the timing of the arrival of the LP allele, -14010*C, is estimated to be at 1300 years BP by geneticists (Breton et al., 2014). This is 800 years later than the earliest archaeological discovery of remains of livestock in this region. On the basis of Y chromosomal evidence, Henn et al. (2009) estimate that pastoralism arrived in southern Africa from eastern Africa at around 2000 years ago. How accurate are the genetic clock estimations? Why do they differ? The ethnic identities of modern day southern African populations are complicated and complex: it would be useful to attempt to re-trace the histories of those groups sampled by geneticists.

Yet it is only by boldly confronting and challenging discrepancies between and within different disciplines that a fuller understanding of the complex history of Africa’s past will be achieved. And what satisfaction when, as in the recognition of the importance of milch pastoralism in the drier western half of southern Africa for over a millennium by scholars from genetics, ethnography and archaeology, they concur.

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Africa, the Cradle of Human Diversity

Cultural and Biological Approaches to Uncover African Diversity

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Cover Africa, the Cradle of Human Diversity
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