Figures
2.1 Axonometric drawing of a ‘central pillar cave’ 69
2.2 Kızıl Cave 163, left corridor, outer wall 70
2.3 Kumtura Cave 23, left corridor, inner wall. Drawing by Monika Zin 71
2.4 Kumtura Cave 23, right corridor, inner wall 72
2.5 Kızıl Cave 123 (reconstruction), cella, left side wall 74
2.6 Kızıl Cave 123 (reconstruction), cella, right side wall 75
2.7 Kızıl Cave 123 (reconstruction), cella, view into the right corridor 76
2.8 Kızıl Cave 163, left corridor, outer wall, detail, narrative on Buddha Dīpaṃkara 86
2.9 Kızıl Cave 69, cella, right side wall, detail, narrative on Buddha Dīpaṃkara 87
2.10 Mazabaha Cave 8, rear corridor, outer wall, detail, narrative on Buddha Dīpaṃkara 88
2.11 Kızıl Cave 188, cella, rear wall 89
2.12 Kızıl Cave 188, cella, left side wall 89
2.13 Kızıl Cave 188, cella, right side wall 90
2.14 Kızıl Cave 163, narrative on a Brahmin offering food (?) to the Buddha 93
2.15 Relief. Sikri, Gandhāra, dated 2nd/3rd c. Lahore Museum, nos. 2306, 2058, 2059 95
3.1 Plan of Shrine A. Karadong 102
3.2 Shrine B, reconstruction of the iconographic programme on the eastern wall, Karadong 103
3.3 Shrine B, northern wall, middle register, Karadong. Xinjiang Institute of Archaeology, Urumqi 104
3.4 Shrine B, upper register, meander, Karadong. Xinjiang Institute of Archaeology, Urumqi 104
3.5 Shrine A, drawing of the painting preserved on the northern and western wall, Karadong 105
3.6 Shrine A, western wall, seated buddhas from the upper register, Karadong. Xinjiang Institute of Archaeology, Urumqi 106
3.7 Mural from the third last cave in the Small Gorge, Kızıl. Museum für asiatische Kunst, Berlin 109
3.8 Drawing of a painted wooden post, Balawaste. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 110
3.9 Fragment of cotton textile, Karadong. Xinjiang Institute of Archaeology, Urumqi 111
3.10 Shrine B, fragment of mural from the west wall, Karadong. Xinjiang Institute of Archaeology, Urumqi 112
3.11 Detail of the ceiling of Cave 16, Ajanta (India) 113
3.12 Drawing of a meander, mural painting, Bāgh (India) 114
3.13 Mural painting in the Buddhist shrine in E.ii, Endere 115
3.14 Painted ceiling with meander decoration in Cave 167. Kızıl (Kuča oasis) 115
3.15 Mosaic in the Great Palace of Constantinople. Mosaic Museum, Istanbul 116
4.1 Portrait of Viśa’ Saṃbhava and of his wife, Lady Cao, East wall of Mogao Cave 98, Dunhuang, ca. 940 119
4.2 Silk banner with Auspicious Statues found in Dunhuang, 9th–10th. Ch.xxii.0023, British Museum and National Museum New Delhi 123
4.3 Auspicious Statues and the founding legend of Khotan, Western niche ceiling (detail) of Mogao Cave 237, Dunhuang, ca. late 8th–mid 9th c. 127
4.4 Mount Gośīrṣa tableau, with Auspicious Statues and Eight Protectors, corridor ceiling of Mogao Cave 9, late 9th c. 137
4.5 Detail of Figure 4.4 143
4.6 Relief sculpture of a standing buddha. Inner wall of Rawak stūpa court, Khotan, 6th–8th c. 144
4.7 Mural with a standing buddha. Inner west wall of Toplukdong site no. 1, Domoko, Khotan, 7th–8th c. 147
4.8 Murals with two protector deities. Inner south wall of Toplukdong site no. 1, Domoko, Khotan (in situ), 7th–8th c. 148
4.9 Mural fragment of a with protector deities, recovered from Toplukdong site no. 3, Domoko, Khotan, 7th–8th c. 149
5.1a Two female deities, Dunhuang, 10th c. P. 4518 (24) 155
5.1b Two female deities, Dunhuang, 10th c. P. 4518 (24) 156
5.2 P. 4518 (24). Detail of Figure 5.1a 163
5.3 Earthenware figurine of a dog, China, Tang Dynasty, 7th–8th c. obj. no. Fe.155–1974 163
5.4a Heavenly Kings (lokapālas), pigments on ramie, recto, Toyok. obj. no. III 7305 166
5.4b Heavenly Kings (lokapālas), pigments on ramie, verso, Toyok. obj. No. III 7305 167
5.5–6 Heavenly Maiden, wall paintings in Toyok Cave 66 170
5.7–8 Tejaprabhā assembly, Karakhoto, ca. 12th c., x2424 174
5.9 Tejaprabhā assembly from Bezeklik Cave 18, wall painting destroyed in World War II 175
5.10 Detail from the scene under the Tejaprabhā assembly from Bezeklik Cave 18, wall painting destroyed in World War II 176
5.11 Drawing of a female deity in Bezeklik Cave 18 177
5.12 Detail of Fig. 5.1, female deity on the right 177
5.13 Drawing of a female deity in Bezeklik Cave 16 178
5.14 Drawing of a female deity in Bezeklik Cave 16 178
5.15 Astrological scroll (Detail), Turfan region. Obj. no. III 520 180
5.16–17 Drawing of female deities after the two sides of a banner painting from Kočo 184
5.18–19 Female deities, wall paintings. Yarkhoto Cave 4 187
5.20–21 Rāhu and Ketu. (Detail of Figure 5.7) 188
5.22 The Light Maiden accompanied by two electae, embroidery, found in Kočo, Ruin K, 9th–10th c. Obj. no. III 6251 190
5.23 Astrological scroll (Detail), Turfan region. Obj. no. III 520 191
5.24 Steatite dish from Kourion, Cyprus, ca. 1st c. BCE–1st c. Egypt, Ptolemaic or Roman period 194
5.25 Romano-Egyptian steatite cup with zodiacal signs, dated ca. 150. Obj. no. 83.AA.327 195
5.26 Romano-Egyptian steatite cup with zodiacal signs, dated ca. 150. Detail of fig. 5.23. Obj. no 83.AA.327 195
5.27 Roman medallion with Isis-Sothis seated on Sirius. 1872,0709.399 196
5.28–29 (Detail of Figure 5.1) Fragment of a Manichaean scroll, Kočo. Obj. no. III 4614 200
6.1 Greeting the Rigteous Man on the Way to the Pure Land of Amitābha, Karakhoto 208
6.2 Pure Land of Amitābha, Karakhoto, 13th–14th c. x2422 212
6.3 Pure Land of Amitābha, thangka on canvas, Karakhoto, late 12th–13th c. x2349 213
6.4 Greeting the righteous man on the way to the Pure Land of Amitābha, Karakhoto. 13th c. (?). x2477 214
6.5 Amitābha appearing before worshippers, Karakhoto, 12th–13th c. x2416 215
6.6 Greeting the righteous man on the way to the Pure Land of Amitābha, Karakhoto, 13th c. x2410 216
6.7 Detail from Buddha preaching scene, west wall of Kaihua Temple Gaoping, Shanxi province 217
6.8 Buddha Amitābha descending from his Pure Land, 1980.275 218
6.9 Amitābha trinity descending on clouds, 12th c. 09.86 219
6.10 Welcoming descent of Amitābha Buddha, 14th c. 2013.47 221
6.11 Amit’a Triad, Korean, 14th c. 61.204.30 222
6.12 Frontispiece to the Diamond sūtra, dated 868. Or.8210/P.2 224
6.13 Frontispiece to the Smaller Amitābha sūtra, Karakhoto. TK 244 226
6.14 Greeting the righteous man on the way to the Pure Land of Amitābha, Karakhoto, 12th–13th c. x2478 227
6.15 Greeting the righteous man on the way to the Pure Land of Amitābha, roll on canvas, Karakhoto, 13th c. x2410 233
6.16 Welcoming descent of Amitābha Buddha 234
6.17 Water-Moon Avalokiteśvara, Karakhoto, early 12th c. x2439 236
6.18 Yuebo Planet, Karakhoto, 13th c. x2454 238
6.19 Acala, thangka on canvas (with border), Karakhoto, 13th–14th c.(?). x2375 239
6.20 Acala, thangka on silk, 13th–14th c. (?). x2374 240
6.21 Welcoming descent of Amitābha, 14th c. 1949.95 242
10.1 Mogao Cave 465, Dunhuang, late 12th c. (?) 322
10.2–3 Vajravārāhī thangka and detail of a charnel ground surrounding the mandorla of the central deity, Karakhoto, late 12th/early 13th c. (?). x2388 323
10.4–5 Cakrasaṃvara and detail of a meditator in the charnel grounds surrounding Cakrasaṃvara’s mandorla. Mogao Cave 465, northern wall, eastern section, Dunhuang, late 12th c. (?) 325
10.6 Sketch of Southern Section (above) and Northern Section (below) of Mogao Cave complex near Dunhuang with location of Cave 465 326
10.7 Main entrance to Mogao Cave 465 327
10.8 Sketch of the northern-most end (part E) of the Northern Section of Mogao Cave complex near Dunhuang with the locations of Cave 465 and burial Caves B42, B43, and B48 327
10.9 Interior of burial Cave B42 with the remains of a deliberately cut human skull 328
10.10 A deliberately sawn-off human skull and found in burial Cave B109 329
10.11 Sketch of part D of the Northern Section of the Mogao Cave complex near Dunhuang with the location of Cave B121 331
10.12 Ritual skull cup and lamp found in Cave B121 331
10.13–15 Hevajra and details of a local master with white ceremonial hat and skull cup and an Indian (?) tantric master with skull cup, Mogao Cave 465, Dunhuang, late 12th c. (?) 333
10.16–17 Vajravārāhī thangka and detail of tantric master with a white skull cup on a stand. Karakhoto, late 12th/early 13th c. (?), x2394 334
10.18 Fragment of maṇḍala with an eight-petalled lotus and a triangle at its centre with the seed syllables in Tibetan script to invoke Vajravārāhī. Karakhoto, late 12th/early 13th c. (?) 338
10.19 A 14 Jingang haimu jilun gongyang cidi lu
10.20–21 Vajravārāhī with retinue of six goddesses within her mandorla and a detail of one of the goddesses from the upper register, second to the left above the central deity, Mogao Cave 465, late 12th c. (?) 345
10.22 Vajravārāhī thangka with retinue of six goddesses, Karakhoto, late 12th c. (?), x2393 346
10.23 Tibetan medical thangka from the Blue Beryl, Tibet, 18th c. HAR 81836 355
10.24 Central and two lateral channels of the subtle body with the position of the seed syllables red BAṂ and white inverted HAṂ 356
10.25 Vajravārāhī thangka with deity depicted in the centre of a source of dharma, Karakhoto, late 12th c. (?), x2391 359
10.26 Perception of three times in the immanent plane of reality 361
10.27 Perception beyond temporal contingency in bodily experience of transcendence in immanence 362
11.1 Two standing Acalas conforming to the directions of the Vairocanā-bhisaṃbodhi, Nepal, 7th–10th c. Left: LACMA AC1995.39.1. Right: MMoA 1982.220.13 371
11.2 Figure identifiable as Acala, Malaysia, 8th–10th c. 375
11.3 Serlingpa Acala with *Vajratīkṣṇa, encircled by Sanskrit ye dharmāḥ formula, Tibet, 11th–12th c. LACMA AC1993.239.12 388
11.4 Kadam Acala flanked by a krodharāja and a donor figure and surrounded by the seven gems of a Wheel-Turning King (Skt. cakravartin) and a Buddha, Tibet, 12th–13th c. MMoA 2005.436.1b. 388
11.5 Dīpaṃkara tradition (Tib. Jo lugs) Acala. Silk tapestry, Tangut make, 12th–13th c., 1992.72 395
11.6 Atypical Serlingpa Acala, Xylograph. Karakhoto, 12th–13th c. 396
13.1 Block-print of the Sanskrit text of the Mañjuśrīnāmasaṃgīti in Uyghur characters with interlinear Brāhmī text. U 4705a and U4704c 452
13.2 Uyghur Block-print of the Yetikän Sudur. U 496_01, U 496_01 456
13.3 Uyghur Astrological Text, U 494 recto 457
13.4 Uyghur Leaf of the Āṭānāṭikasūtra. U 3831 recto 459
Map
4.1 Places of residence of Auspicious Statues in ancient Khotan. Letters a–q refer to Table 4.2 133
Tables
1.1 Enchin’s Catalogues of Books in Chinese Monastic Libraries 35
1.2 Eight Kami Shrines in the Transmission Record of Onjōji and the Supplemental Record of the Transmission Record of the Temple Gate Branch 50
4.1 Presence of Khotanese themes at Mogao and Yulin Caves 126
4.2 Auspicious Statues residing in Khotan 128
4.3 The Eight Protectors of Khotan 140
5.1 Deities with similar iconography from the Turfan area and Dunhuang 202
7.1 Avalokiteśvara banners in the Berlin Turfan Collection 262
7.2 Avalokiteśvara banners in the Berlin Turfan Collection 263
11.1 The ten furies in the Serlingpa sādhana: names in Tibetan and reconstructed Sanskrit 377