2.1 Inventory of Phonemes

2.2 Syllable Structure and Phonotactics

Yanagawa has two types of syllables, pre-syllables and ordinary syllables. The syllable structure of ordinary syllables is (C₁)(G)V₁(V₂)(C₂). All consonants except /y/ and /w/ can fill the C₁ position. /y/ and /w/ can fill the G position, although /y/ cannot appear when C₁ is /d/ or /c/, and /w/ can appear only when C₁ is left empty. All vowels can fill the V₁ position. V₁ and V₂ may be identical (i.e. as a long vowel) or different (i.e. in the case of the diphthongs /ai/, /au/, /ui/, /ae/, and /oi/). In word non-final syllables, all consonants except /h/ and /r/ can fill the C₂ position. C₂ consonants except /n/ of a non-word-final syllable form a geminate with the C₁ consonant of the next syllable (e.g. /oddon/ [odːoɴ] ‘1.pl’). C₂ /n/ may make a partial geminate with the C₁ consonant of the next syllable (e.g. /benpu/ [bempu] ‘cheek’). In word-final syllables, only /n/ can fill the C₂ position. The pre-syllable is a syllabic consonant which may occur only word-initially and is filled by /n/ alone. In this case, only nasals can occur at the onset of the next syllable, as in /nma/ ‘horse’.

2.3 Mora

The relationship between syllable structure and morae is shown in (408). N represents the pre-syllable.

(408)

(N).	(C1)	(G)	V1	(V2)	(C2)
µ			µ	µ	µ

Yanagawa has a minimal word constraint (MWC). There are underlyingly monomoraic nouns in Yanagawa, such as me ‘eye’, si ‘city’, ko ‘child’, etc. If a monomoraic noun is pronounced in isolation (i.e. followed by no clitics), the word-final vowel is lengthened. When clitics follow a monomoraic noun, some clitics count towards the MWC, and others do not. When a monomoraic noun is followed by a sentence-final particle or a copula, vowel lengthening (VL) occurs regardless of the number of morae in the following clitic as in /zii⸗ka/ (//zi⸗ka//, character⸗q) and /koo⸗yatta/ (//ko⸗yar-ta//, child⸗cop-pst) ‘(She) was a child’; consequently it is considered that only the noun counts toward MWC. If the following clitic is a case particle or limiter particle and has two or more morae, VL occurs as in /sii⸗kara/ (//si⸗kara//, city⸗abl) ‘from the city’; therefore only the noun counts towards MWC. If the following clitic is a monomoraic case particle or limiter particle, VL rarely occurs as in /meni/ (//me⸗ni//, eye⸗dat) ‘to the eye’. Therefore, it is considered that monomoraic nouns plus a monomoraic case or limiter particle count toward the MWC.

2.4 Phonological Rules

Yanagawa has general phonological rules, which apply to all morphemes, and morpheme-specific phonological rules. Here I focus on the former.

The initial voiceless consonant of the non-initial root of a compound may be voiced if its initial consonant is underlyingly voiceless. This phenomenon is widely distributed in the Japonic-Ryukyuan family and is known by its traditional name ‘rendaku’ or sequential voicing (Shibatani 1990, p. 173). Although almost all consonants become their voiced counterpart phonemes by sequential voicing, underlying /h/ is realized as /b/ (because /h/ was historically *p), and underlying /t/ is realized as /z/ before /i, y, u/ (see § 2.1.2).

Vowel fusion rules apply to vowel sequences. All vowel sequences and long vowels derived from them are shown below: //au// → /oo/, //iu// → /yuu/, //ou// → /oo/, //eu// → /uu/ or /yuu/, //ai// → /ee/, //ui// → /ii/, and //oi// → /ee/.

2.5 Word Level Prosody and Intonation

Yanagawa does not have a lexical accent according to Hirayama (1951, p. 240) and Okano (1983, p. 64). In the survey conducted by the author, neither lexically specified accent nor fixed accent was identified.³ An intonational unit, the unit that has a rising contour and falling contour in itself, usually corresponds to an extended word, which is the unit formed from a word plus a series of clitics, although its pitch peak is not fixed. Sometimes it corresponds to an auxiliary verb construction (see § 10.1) and a noun phrase that has a modifier (e.g. verb, verbal adjective, etc.) and a head noun.

As for the relationship between prosody and sentence type, declarative sentences have a falling intonation. Polar-question sentences have a rising intonation. Content-question sentences take a falling pattern. Imperative sentences with an imperative marker (-re, -ro, -i) have a falling pattern, though the rhetorical imperative with the conditional marker ⸗nara has a rising pattern.

4.1 Pronouns

Pronouns include personal pronouns, the reflexive pronoun, demonstrative pronouns, and interrogative pronouns. In this section, I focus on the personal pronouns and the reflexive pronoun, while demonstrative and interrogative pronouns are described in § 8, comparing them with other demonstrative and interrogative words.

4.2 Lexical Nouns

Lexical nouns may take the polite prefix o- (e.g. o-kusui ‘medicine’) and the plural suffixes -don and -tati. Like personal pronouns, lexical nouns can take both -don and -tati in this order, as in kodomo-don-tati ‘kids’. Unlike pronouns, number-marking of lexical nouns is not obligatory. With regard to plural marking, there are many languages where animacy influences plural marking (Corbett 2000: 56–57). In Yanagawa, it has been confirmed that pronouns and nouns denoting humans and animals can take -don and pronouns and human nouns can take -tati, but it is not clear where on the hierarchy these two markers are distributed, or whether they can be explained in terms of this hierarchy in the first place.

4.3 Numerals

A numeral is made up of a numeral root plus a classifier suffix. There are two series of numeral roots in Yanagawa: a native series and a Chinese (Sino-Japanese) loanword series. Classifier suffixes relate to features or qualities (e.g. animacy, shape, usage, etc.) that are natural or inherent to the referent(s) counted. Some classifiers have forms from both series, as in -ri and -nin and which one is used depends on the numeral roots. If the numeral root is hito- ‘one’ or hute- ‘two’, -ri is used; otherwise -nin is used.⁶ In information questions, the numeral root is replaced by nan- or iku- as in nan-nin ‘how many persons’ and iku-tu ‘how many things’. Table 9.4 shows examples of numerals.

4.4 Adnominals

Almost all adnominals are formed from demonstrative roots or interrogative roots (see § 8) like ko-n (prox-adn) ‘this’, ko-genka (prox-adn) ‘like this’, do-n (what-adn) ‘which’, and do-genka (what-adn) ‘what kind of’. An exception is honna ‘real’ as seen in honna sin.yuu ‘true best friend’.

5.1 Inflectional Morphology

Verbs are either finite or non-finite. In finite environments, verbs inflect for mood and may or may not inflect for tense and polarity. In non-finite environments, verbs inflect for conjunctional relationships and may or may not inflect for polarity. Table 9.5 shows the paradigm of verbs. Elements which are not part of the inflectional form, but which mark grammatical categories such as tense (e.g. ⸗yar-ta), are given in brackets.

The imperative suffix has three allomorphs: -ro, -re, and -i. Consonant-final stems (including the r-final stem derived from a vowel-final stem) and the s-irregular stem take -re (e.g. //kak-re// ‘Write it!’, //mir-re// ‘Look!’, and //se-re// ‘Do it!’). Vowel-final stems and the s-irregular stem take -ro (e.g. //mi-ro// ‘Look!’, //se-ro// ‘Do it!’). The k-irregular stem takes -i (e.g. //ko-i// ‘Come!’).

A number of morphophonological rules apply to the stem and the suffix when a consonant-final stem takes any one of the following suffixes: the sequential suffix -te, the past suffix -ta, the conditional suffix -tara, the parallel suffix -tai, the perfect suffix -tor-, and the prospective suffix -tok-.⁹ The rules are: (a) if the stem-final consonant is one of /b, m, n, g/, the /t/ becomes /d/ (e.g. //sikom-ta// (sharpen-pst) → sikom-da); (b) if the stem-final consonant is one of /b, m, w/, it becomes the vowel /u/ (e.g. sikom-da → sikou-da), and if the stem-final consonant is one of /s, k, g/, it becomes the vowel /i/ (e.g. //hanas-ta// (speak-pst) → hanai-ta); (c) if the stem-final consonant is /r/, it assimilates to the following /t/ (e.g. //nar-ta// (become-pst) → /natta/); (d) vowel fusion occurs, with /ai/ becoming /ee/, /ui/ becoming /ii/, and /au/ and /ou/ becoming /oo/ (e.g. sikou-da → sikoo-da, hanai-ta → hanee-ta); and (e) when a foot is formed at the left edge of the stem and the foot boundary would split a long vowel, the long vowel is shortened (e.g. sikoo-da → /sikoda/, hanee-ta → /haneta/).¹⁰ Examples are shown in Table 9.6.

5.2 Derivational Morphology

Verbal derivation includes formation of the causative (-sase-/-sasu-), passive (-rare-/-raru-), potential (-kir-, -rare-/-raru-), aspect (-tor-, -tok-), and honorific (-rass-, -nahar-). The causative suffix -sase-/sasu- and the passive suffix -rare-/-raru- form e/u-final stems, while the other derivational suffixes form consonant-final stems.

5.3 Existential and Copular Verbs

Yanagawa has two existential verbs, or-, and ar-. The former is used when the subject is animate, and the latter is used when the subject is inanimate.¹¹ As r-final stems, they inflect according to the inflectional pattern for r-final verbs, with the only exception that ar- cannot take the negative suffix -n. Instead, a suppletive stem is used (i.e. ar- (affirmative) > na- (negative)).

(410)

oziityanga	otta.
oziityan⸗ga	or-ta
grandfather⸗nom	exist-pst

‘My grandfather was there.’

(411)

hatino	suno	atta.
hati⸗no	su⸗no	ar-ta
bee⸗gen	hive⸗nom	exist-pst

‘There was a beehive.’

Yanagawa has two copular verbs, ⸗yar- and ⸗zyar-. It is unclear whether there is any difference between these two other than the pronunciation. The ⸗yar- form is mainly used by HK (female) and the ⸗zyar- form is mainly used by YM (male); therefore the gender of the speakers may affect usage. Copular verbs follow verbs, verbal adjectives, nominal adjectives, and nouns. In this section, I describe the paradigm of copular verbs, which is shown in Table 9.7.

Note that the indicative non-past form ⸗zyar-u (⸗yar-u) can appear only in some circumstances, such as before the clitics ⸗ken or ⸗mon as shown in (412), and does not appear when a clitic does not follow.

(412)

mukasino	kotobayakken
mukasi⸗no	kotoba⸗yar-ru⸗ken
old.time⸗gen	word⸗cop-npst⸗csl

‘Because the words (I use) are old’

6.1 Verbal Adjective

This section describes the internal structure of verbal adjectives, focusing on inflectional morphology. Table 9.8 shows the paradigm of verbal adjectives. In negation, the sequential form (e.g. /hayo/ (fast-seq)) is followed by the verbal adjective na- which is inflected for tense and mood (e.g. /hayo naka/ ‘isn’t fast’, /hayo nakatta/ ‘wasn’t fast’). In Table 9.8, the negative verbal adjective is shown in brackets.

Almost all inflectional suffixes contain the element ka. This is because these inflectional suffixes diachronically derive from the adverbial suffix *-ku, which becomes -u in modern Yanagawa, and the verb *ar- ‘to be’ (Yoshimachi 1931: 58). Although verbal adjectives are a subclass of verbals, verbal adjectives and verbs are distinguished by two points. First, verbal adjectives take inflectional suffixes (e.g. the indicative non-past suffix -ka, the past suffix -katta, etc.) which differ from those that verbs take (e.g. the indicative non-past suffix -ru, the past suffix -ta, etc.). Second, verbal adjectives have an exclamative mood that verbs do not have.

6.2 Nominal Adjectives

Nominal adjectives themselves do not inflect, but the copula that follows the nominal adjectives inflects instead. The roots of nominal adjectives are almost all loanwords from Chinese (kiree ‘beautiful’) or English (sumaato ‘slender’). The paradigm of the copula after nominal adjectives is the same as the paradigm shown in Table 9.7.

6.3 Roots Which May Be Realized Both as Verbal Adjectives and Nominal Adjectives

Yanagawa has two kinds of roots that can be realized as a verbal adjective without derivational operation applying. One can be realized only as a verbal adjective (e.g. hiku- ‘low’, oso- ‘slow’, waka- ‘young’, etc.) with no derivational operation applying, while the other can be realized both as a verbal adjective (e.g. kiree-katta (beautiful-pst)) and nominal adjective (e.g. kiree⸗yat-ta (beautiful⸗cop-pst)) without a derivational operation applying. This phenomenon is shared with neighboring dialects and Kambe (1980) points out that roots that were once realized only as nominal adjectives are now taking the same affixes as verbal adjectives. It is unclear whether there are any semantic differences between forms such as kiree-katta and kiree⸗yat-ta.

Yanagawa also has roots that can only be realized as nominal adjectives and they cannot be realized as verbal adjectives (e.g. iya⸗yat-ta (unpleasant⸗cop-pst), *iya-katta (unpleasant-pst)).

9.1 The Head

Nominals can stand in the head position of an argument phrase. Formal nouns which have no lexical meaning (⸗tu/⸗to ‘thing, person’, ⸗gotu/⸗goto ‘like’, kotu/koto ‘thing’, toki ‘time’, niki ‘vicinity’) always need a modifier (e.g. atu-ka⸗tu ‘hot thing’), and the same applies when filling the head position of an argument phrase.

9.2 The Modifier

Adnominals, noun phrases composed of a noun and a genitive particle, and adnominal clauses whose head is a verb or an adjective can stand in the modifier position.

9.3 Case and Other Role Markings

Case in Yanagawa is indicated by case particles following an NP. The form and function of the case particles are given in Table 9.10. Yanagawa has two nominative markers, which are discussed in more detail in § 11.2.

Nominative and genitive markers have the same forms (⸗ga and ⸗no/⸗n) and these two markers diachronically derive from the genitive markers *ga and *no. They, however, are distinguished for the following reasons. Firstly, nominative markers and genitive markers have different functions. The former marks a S/A argument (and a P argument in transitive adjective sentences) (see § 11.2), while the latter marks the modifier of an NP, as in ori⸗ga oya ‘my parent’. Secondly, the default choice of ⸗ga and ⸗no/⸗n differs for nominative markers and genitive markers. If an NP is a S/A argument, ⸗ga can be used regardless of the animacy of the NP, while ⸗no/⸗n can be used only when the NP is low in the animacy hierarchy (§ 11.2). When an NP modifies another NP, ⸗no/⸗n can be used regardless of the animacy of the modifying NP (e.g. ori⸗no ko ‘my child’ and bikitan⸗no ko ‘tadpole (lit. child of a frog)’), while ⸗ga can be used only when the animacy of the modifying NP is high (e.g. ori⸗ga ko ‘my child’ and *bikitan⸗ga ko ‘tadpole’).

An information-structure particle, which indicates the information-structure status of the noun, and limiter particles, which indicate quantifier or qualifier meaning, attach to an NP. When the topic marker ⸗wa, additive marker ⸗mo, or exemplative markers ⸗den and ⸗don attach to S/A argument or P arguments, they replace the nominative or accusative marker (e.g. tarooga (Taro⸗nom) becomes taroowa (Taro⸗top)).

10.1 Verbal Predication

Verbal predicates are classified into simple predicates, which contain one root, and complex predicates, which contain more than one root. This section focuses on the complex predicate. Complex predicates fall into two types: compound verbs and auxiliary constructions.

Compound verbs can be roughly divided into syntactic compound verbs (e.g. tabe+hazimu-ru (eat-start-npst) ‘start eating’) and lexical compound verbs (e.g. ot-i+ayu-ru (fall-thm+fall-npst) ‘fall’) (Kageyama 1993). When the first element of a compound verb is a consonant-final stem, the thematic vowel -i- is needed. In the case of syntactic compound verbs, the first element of the verb can take the causative affix -sasu-/-sase- or the passive affix -raru-/-rare- (tabe+hazimu-ru ‘start eating’, tabe-sase+hazimu-ru ‘start feeding’), whereas lexical compound verbs cannot take these affixes (ot-i+ayu-ru ‘fall’, *oti-sase+ayu-ru ‘letting something fall’). Of the second elements of syntactic compound verbs, only hazimu-/hazime- ‘start’, owar- ‘finish’, naos- ‘repair, put away’, and or- ‘exist’ have been identified so far. hazimu-/hazime- and oyu-/oe- indicate the beginning and the end of an action respectively. naos- indicates that the action is to be performed again. or- expresses imperfective aspect (see § 11.5.2). For or-, when it follows the first element of compound verbs, a morpheme-specific phonological rule applies which inserts y before o, as in kak-i+yor-u (write-thm+prog-npst) ‘be writing’ (cf. kak-i+owar-u (write-thm+finish-npst) ‘finish writing’).

An auxiliary construction is composed of a main verb, which takes the sequential suffix -te, and an auxiliary verb/adjective, which takes an inflectional suffix. The main verb is a lexical verb and functions as the main semantic component. The auxiliary verbs/adjectives that we have found so far are given in Table 9.12.

10.2 Non-verbal Predication

Non-verbal predication is classified into three types: verbal adjectival predication, nominal adjectival predication, and nominal predication. These predicates divide into simple predicates and complex predicates. This section focuses on the latter.

In non-verbal complex predicates, light verbs and a light verbal adjective are used.

A light verb construction is composed of a main part and a light verb or verbal adjective. The light verbs are nar- ‘to become’ and si- ‘to do’, and the light verbal adjective is na- ‘not exist’. As a main part of a light verb construction, a verbal adjective takes the sequential suffix -u as in hayo nar-u (//haya-u nar-ru//, fast-seq become-npst) ‘It becomes fast’. A nominal adjective or a noun takes the sequential copula form ⸗ni as in kiree⸗ni nar-u (beautiful⸗cop.seq become-npst) ‘It becomes beautiful’.

11.1 Sentence Types

Yanagawa has three major sentence types: declaratives (statements), interrogatives (requests for the addressee to speak), and commands (requests for the addressee to act). Examples of each sentence type are shown below.

(416)

amadowa	yosari	kuru.
amado⸗wa	yosari	kur-ru
shutter⸗top	night	close-npst

‘(I) close the shutter at night.’ (declarative)

(417)

a.

dariga	miyoba	kurasitatukai.
dari⸗ga	miyo⸗ba	kuras-i-ta⸗tu⸗kai
who⸗nom	Miyo⸗acc	hit-thm-pst⸗fmn⸗q

‘Who hit Miyo?’ (content question)

b.

koryaa	mikanka.
kori⸗wa	mikan⸗ka
this⸗top	orange⸗q

‘Is this an orange?’ (polar question)

(418)

a.

hayo	hasire.
haya-u	hasir-re
fast-seq	run-imp

‘Run fast!’ (brusque command)

b.

sotosan	dete	minnara.
soto⸗san	de-te	mi-ru⸗nara
outside⸗all	get.out-seq	cnt-npst⸗cond

‘Why don’t you go out?’ (polite command)

Interrogative sentences fall into two subclasses: polar questions and content questions. For each type of interrogative, question markers (e.g. ⸗ka, ⸗ya, ⸗to, etc.) are used. In terms of intonation, polar questions take a rising contour, while content questions take a falling contour (§ 2.5).

For commands, imperative suffixes are used as in (418a), but euphemisms using the conditional particle ⸗nara are also used as in (418b) and are more frequent. Commands using ⸗nara are polite, while commands using imperative suffixes are brusque.

11.2 Alignment

The alignment of Yanagawa is nominative-accusative, with obligatory S and A argument marking and optional P argument marking. For a one-place predicate sentence, the S argument is marked with nominative ⸗ga or ⸗no, as in (419).

(419)

taroo{ga/no}	sarukiyoru.
taroo⸗{ga/no}	saruk-i+or-ru
Taro⸗{nom/nom}	walk-thm+prog-npst

‘Taro is walking.’

For a two-place predicate sentence, the A argument is marked with ⸗ga or ⸗no and the P argument is marked with ⸗ba as in (420) or is non-marked. It is unclear when the P argument occurs without ⸗ba, but in discourse, it occurs more often when the P argument is inanimate and in the position immediately preceding the verb, as in (421).

(420)

mamiga	miyoba	kurasita.
mami⸗ga	miyo⸗ba	kuras-i-ta
Mami⸗nom	Miyo⸗acc	hit-thm-pst

‘Mami hit Miyo.’

(421)

piisu	tigitte	okura	tigitte	mame	tigitte
piisu	tigir-te	okura	tigir-te	mame	tigir-te
green.peas	pick-seq	okra	pick-seq	beans	pick-seq

‘(I) picked the green peas, the okra, and the beans …’

The animacy of the S and A arguments and the valency of the clause affects the choice of nominative markers. Table 9.13 shows the distribution of nominative markings in discourse data. Those shown before the slash have a higher frequency in discourse. Blank spaces indicate that there were no relevant examples in discourse.

For a three-place predicate sentence, the A argument is marked with ⸗ga or ⸗no, the P argument is marked with ⸗ba, and the E argument is marked with ⸗ni, as in (422).

(422)

origa	tarooni	honba	yatta.
ori-∅⸗ga	taroo⸗ni	hon⸗ba	yar-ta
1-sg⸗nom	Taro⸗dat	book⸗acc	give-pst

‘I gave Taro a book.’

11.3 Valency Changing

11.4 Polarity

For verbal clauses, polarity is an inflectional category and polarity is expressed using an inflectional suffix (as in Table 9.5). For non-verbal clauses, polarity is not an inflectional category, and negation is expressed using the auxiliary verbal adjective na- ‘not exist’, as in (426).

(426)

taroowa	asino	{hayaka/	hayo	naka}
taroo⸗wa	asi⸗no	{haya-ka/	haya-u	na-ka}
Taro⸗top	leg⸗nom	{fast-npst/	fast-seq	not.exist-npst}

‘Taro {is/ isn’t} quick on his feet.’

11.5 TAM

11.6 Potential

There are two potential suffixes in Yanagawa: -kir- and -rare-/-raru-. The differences between these two morphemes are unclear, but in discourse data, -kir- expresses that the agent does or does not have the ability to do something, and -rare-/-raru- expresses that the agent can or cannot do something due to the environment. This distinction is widely distributed in the dialects of northern Kyūshū (Kambe 1992).

(433)

asino	hayakaken	ariba	oikiru.
asi⸗no	haya-ka⸗ken	ari⸗ba	ow-i-kir-ru
leg⸗nom	fast-npst⸗csl	that⸗acc	overtake-thm-abp-npst

‘I’m fast on my legs, so I can overtake him.’

(434)

okaneno	aruken	keanimo	ikaruru.
o-kane⸗no	ar-ru⸗ken	kea⸗ni⸗mo	ik-raru-ru
pol-money⸗nom	exist-npst⸗csl	rest.home⸗dat⸗add	go-crp-npst

‘I have money, so I can go to the rest home.’

11.7 Information Structure and Its Formal Encodings

In Yanagawa, topic is indicated with the topic marker ⸗wa.

(435)

ano	occanna	keebanibakkai	itatte
ano	occan⸗wa	keeba⸗ni⸗bakkai	itar-te
that	man⸗top	horse.race⸗dat⸗rpt	go-seq

‘That man only goes to horse races, …’

The choice of nominative particles ⸗ga and ⸗no depends on the animacy of the subject (see § 11.2), but focus types (information focus vs. contrastive focus) also affect the choice, as in (436), (437).

(436)

in{ga/no}	sarukiyoru.
in⸗{ga/no}	saruk-i+or-ru
dog⸗{nom/nom}	walk-thm+prog-npst

‘A dog is walking. (In response to the question ‘what is walking?’)’

(437)

in{ga/*no}	sarukiyoru.
in⸗{ga/no}	saruk-i+or-ru.
dog⸗{nom/nom}	walk-thm+prog-npst

‘(It is not a cat,) it is a dog that is walking.’

12.1 Clause-Combining Strategies

Yanagawa has two clause-combining strategies: coordination and subordination.

12.2 Quotative

A quotative clause is a complement of speech-act verbs such as yuw- ‘say’, hanas- ‘speak’; writing-act verbs such as kak- ‘write’; cognitive verbs such as omow- ‘think’, wakar- ‘understand’; and the existential verbs or- ‘exist (animate)’ and ar- ‘exist (inanimate)’. The quotative particle ⸗ti attaches to a complement clause.

(444)

basarakawa	iretaga	yokarooti	omoubai.
basaraka⸗wa	ire-ta⸗ga	yo-karoo⸗ti	omow-ru⸗bai
very⸗top	add-pst⸗nom	good-npst.infr⸗quot	think-npst⸗sfp

‘I think it would be better to include the word ‘very’ (in the sentence). (In response to an example of Yanagawa presented by the author)’

(445)

sandenti	arooga.
sanden⸗ti	ar-a-u⸗ga
Sanden(Place)⸗quot	exist-thm-infr⸗sfp

‘Don’t you know Sanden?’

12.3 Insubordination

Clauses to which the conditional particle ⸗nara attaches can be insubordinated and used to express commands, as in (418b).

12.4 Clause-Chaining Structure

Clause-chaining structures usually express temporal relations such as overlap and succession (Payne 1997: 321). A clause chain consists of a series of converbs, which do not exhibit non-past/past tense opposition.

(446)

kokoni	hukinba	irete	mesiba	koo	irete
koko⸗ni	hukin⸗ba	ire-te	mesi⸗ba	koo	ire-te
here⸗dat	cloth⸗acc	put-seq	rice⸗acc	this.way	put-seq

‘I put a cloth (in a rice tub), and put rice (in the rice tub), …’