Chapter 6 “Remove the Sandals from Your Feet”: Holiness in the Dutch Euthanasia Debate

In: The Calling of the Church in Times of Polarization
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Annemarieke van der Woude
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1 Introduction

Earth’s crammed with heaven,
And every common bush afire with God;
But only he who sees, takes off his shoes—
The rest sit round it, and pluck blackberries.1

These verses from Elizabeth Barrett Browning immediately show the precariousness of my endeavor. I want to introduce the biblical notion of holiness into the Dutch euthanasia debate. However, the poet formulates in an accurate and humorous way that it is easy to violate what is holy: “only he who sees, takes off his shoes—The rest sit round it, and pluck blackberries.” To regard something as holy, sensitivity is needed, but not everybody shows sensitivity. What might be perceived as unassailable—holy—is vulnerable at the same time. It can easily be neglected and overlooked.

2 Why Holiness?

It is far from obvious to reflect on holiness in relation to euthanasia. Would not suffering serve as a more adequate concept in relation to dying on request?2 One could argue that we, people living in an affluent society in the first quarter of the twenty-first century, have lost the ability to endure suffering. It is stated that requests for euthanasia would possibly diminish, would we be more able to bear pain and dependency. In addition, from a religious perspective one could bring forward that, in God’s creation, suffering is not the final and last word.

The main reason why I will not explore suffering is the following: People who lobby for self-determination in end-of-life issues do not consider suffering as a potential source of meaning but, instead, as a fundamental reason for their wish to die at a moment chosen by themselves. The introduction of the notion of suffering into the Dutch debate on euthanasia would end the conversation even before it has started. Instead of overcoming polarization, this concept would only supply fuel to us versus them thinking.

Another contribution from scripture to the debate on euthanasia would seem to be the commandment: “You shall not murder” (Ex.20:13).3 Does this commandment not formulate in plain language that, from a biblical perspective, it is forbidden to terminate someone’s life? In fact, this is a hermeneutical question. Does the sixth commandment refer to euthanasia? I do not think so. The Ten Commandments offer guiding principles for living together as a community in which you honor God and honor other persons. The prohibition to kill a person in a violent and unjust way is at stake here, not the issue of dying on request.

In order to explain why I choose holiness as my topic, I need to spend a few words on the Dutch situation. Regarding end-of-life decisions the Netherlands are totally unique. Since 2002, the Dutch Euthanasia Act regulates both euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide.

Ever since, the number of people dying on request is growing. In 2019, it concerned more than 6.300 men and women.4 The files of reported euthanasia also show that, in addition to the number of terminally ill people, the number of people without a life-threatening disease is growing as well. These patients are categorized under three headings: suffering from dementia, from a psychiatric disorder and from multiple afflictions related to old age.

The debate on euthanasia in the Netherlands has become highly polarized.5 For those at the one end of the spectrum, consideration with every human being’s vulnerability is an important value. This position can be observed both within and without the confines of church communities. Within a faith community, this notion is often translated as every human being is a creature made by God. Those who adhere to vulnerability as an essential characteristic of human existence, are inclined to make a caricature of their opponents in the debate on euthanasia, by using the ‘slippery slope’ argument: If we allow euthanasia for the terminally ill now, termination of life will eventually become an easy and cheap solution to shortages in the care for the elderly.

For those at the other end of the spectrum, autonomy is an important value. They, in turn, tend to demonize their opponents, by stating that, if these would get their way, others would determine for you when your life is compatible with human dignity; they also tend to evoke the spectre of being forced to wile away your life as a zombie in a nursing home.

In this tumultuous and often emotional debate, I am looking for a biblical notion that can serve as a bridge between these two extremes. It is my intention to lend the bible—more specifically: the Old Testament—relevance in actual dilemmas, even though these dilemmas did not exist in biblical times.6 I hold, that ‘holiness’ serves as a good candidate, because it does not point to a characteristic of a person or an object, but to a dynamic force.

3 The Secularization of Holiness

“Das Heilige ist in aller Munde,” holiness is on everyone’s tongue, as Jochen Schmidt states.7 Holiness has migrated from the religious realm into everyday life practice. Schmidt searches for ways to connect a secularized notion of holiness with a Christian one. He takes the concept ‘unavailability’ (“Unverfügbarkeit”) as his point of departure. Not everything that is unavailable necessarily approaches holiness. Schmidt mentions the future as an example. It is not at our disposal, but neither does it carry with it the notion of holiness. The latter only happens when vis-a-vis the person or thing which has been set apart—the first part of Schmidt’s definition, a neutral attitude is impossible—the second part of his definition.

An example of an experience which, on the continuum of being unavailable, is closer to holiness, is looking at a work of art. The effect a painting has, is beyond the control of the artist. A work of art emanates something to which the onlooker responds with attentive observation. In a museum, one does not move around in the way one does in a supermarket. It may not be obvious to attribute works of art a holy status, but it can not be denied that art evokes something which requires a fitting reaction.

Schmidt would state, that that which has been set apart, makes an appeal. This appeal can be heard by anyone, but in the Christian tradition, it will be interpreted as an appeal from God, according to Schmidt.

4 Holiness in the Bible

In the biblical tradition, nothing is holy in and of itself, but anything can become holy. What does this mean for the concepts of life and death: are they holy?

According to biblical standards, being alive points to being in connection, as Christian Frevel states.8 In particular, this means being in connection with God: “Therefore my heart is glad, and my soul rejoices; my body also rests secure. For you don’t give me up to Sheol, or let your faithful one see the Pit. You show me the path of life. In your presence there is fullness of joy; in your right hand are pleasures forevermore” (Ps.16:9–11).9

Does this mean that life is itself holy? Not a priori. In the way we treat living creatures, we could honor their holy status, but this is not self-evident. In the Western part of the world we violate the existence of plants, animals and human beings in all possible ways. It is the negative side of our high standard of living. But there is also a positive side. When someone suffers from a severe disease, we are grateful that we have instruments and medicines to interfere. So, I argue that showing respect for the untouchable status of life does not include that it is prohibited, in all circumstances, to try to influence the course of events.10

In the biblical tradition, life as such is not holy and the same holds true for death. In the Old Testament, death can exert its influence, even when a person has not died yet. Like ‘life,’ ‘death’ is defined in relation to the community. It signifies the experience of being cut off from the community, even though one is fully alive.11 Remember Job: after having lost his loved ones and all his possessions, he curses the day of his birth: “Let the day perish in which I was born, and the night that said, ‘A man-child is conceived.’ Why did I not die at birth, come forth from the womb and expire?” (Job 3:3; 11).

Also in the book of Psalms we find texts that describe death as the loss of connection with people and with God. In Psalm 88 for instance, the psalmist experiences his painful condition simultaneously with his inability to be in contact with the Divine: “I am counted among those who go down to the Pit; I am like those who have no help, like those forsaken among the dead, like the slain that lie in the grave, like those whom you remember no more, for they are cut off from your hand. Do you work wonders for the dead? Do the shades rise up to praise you? Are your wonders known in the darkness, or your saving help in the land of forgetfulness?” (Ps.88:4–5; 10; 12).12

In scripture, holiness entails that something or somebody is taken from everyday life and is set apart, for a specific task or destiny. The core of priestly theology—a literary tradition in the Old Testament in which holiness is a central concept—can be formulated as setting apart in order to experience proximity. In the Bible, this means proximity of the Divine, and can be attained in two ways: liturgy and ethics.13

The liturgical aspect of holiness is concerned with the rites. It can involve a designated space, such as the temple; persons who are set apart, like the priests and Levites who serve as singer, sentinel or overseer in the Jerusalem temple. It can involve sacred times, such as the Sabbath, or feasts like Pesach. But objects also can be holy, such as ointment with which liturgical utensils, or people that enter into a ministry, are anointed.

Holiness is an active force that is transferable. Interaction with holy things was enwrapped in rules. Fear of desecration and defilement was everywhere around. Leviticus contains many of these regulations, especially in the first part of the book: instructions for sacrifices (Lev.1–7), the investment of the priests (Lev.8–10) and rules on purity and impurity (Lev.11–16).14

But holiness does not only affect the religious domain. It also concerns daily life. People are set apart, in order to mirror the Lord’s holiness in the way they live. This ethical aspect is found especially in the second half of the book, in the so-called Holiness Code (Lev.17–26).15 To sum up, in the priestly parts of the biblical tradition, there are two ways to experience God’s nearness: in the cult and in ethics. With a focus on the narrative progression in the book of Leviticus, Nihan concludes that “the overall sequence suggest[s] a pattern of growing intimacy with the divine.”16

5 Holiness of the Divine

What are the characteristics of the Lord’s holiness? Psalm 99 declares, as a repetitive strain: “Holy is he!” (Ps.99:3; 5) and it closes with a hymnal phrase: “Extol the Lord our God, and worship at his holy mountain; for the Lord our God is holy” (Ps.99:9). The psalm illuminates: “Mighty King, lover of justice, you have established equity; you have executed justice and righteousness in Jacob” (Ps.99:4). That is to say: mishpat (“justice”) and tsedaka (“righteousness”) are the fundamentals of his holy government.

The psalm is one of the so-called Yhwh-Kingship psalms (Ps.93–100). In this song, the Lord’s holiness is intertwined with his kingship. Being king means that he vouches for human rights and that he offers a shelter for those who have no defense. At any rate, the kingship of Yhwh is meaningless when it is not recognized by his people, as Henk Leene underscores in his study on the intertextual relationships between the Yhwh-Kingship psalms and Second Isaiah.17 The same goes for the Lord’s holiness. It can easily be neglected. His holiness only has significance when it is affirmed as such. That is to say, the relational aspect of the notion of holiness cannot be overlooked.

The encounter between Moses and the Divine at the burning bush underscores this relational aspect (Ex.3:1–14). There, the Divine reveals himself to Moses by mentioning his name: “I am who I am” (Ex.3:14). He declares that he is a God of liberation: “I have observed the misery of my people who are in Egypt; I have heard their cry on account of their taskmasters. Indeed, I know their sufferings, and I have come down to deliver them from the Egyptians, and to bring them up out of that land to a good and broad land, a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex.3:7–8).

In relation to holiness, one verse deserves special attention: “‘Come no closer!,’ the Lord said to Moses. ‘Remove the sandals from your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground’” (Ex.3:5). The ground is not holy by nature. It has become so because of the divine presence. In his reaction, Moses affirms the holy character: “And Moses hid his face, for he was afraid to look at God” (Ex.3:6). Attribution is an essential factor in dealing with holiness. Moses’ attitude could have been totally different. The strength of the verses from Elizabeth Barrett Browning, that serve as a motto for this article, relates to this. She describes an unexpected alternative reaction of some people, when glancing at the burning bush: “The rest sit round it, and pluck blackberries.”

6 Holiness of the People

Leviticus 19 reveals how people’s behavior can be set apart, as a way to confirm the holiness of the Divine. Its overture sounds as a program: “You shall be holy, for I the Lord your God am holy” (Lev.19:2) and its closing words are: “I am the Lord” (Lev.19:37).

The chapter touches several domains of daily life. It contains allusions to the Ten Commandments, ritual instructions, guidelines for dignified contact with one another, a careful treatment of the environment and of one’s body, and so on. The focus on all kinds of regulations towards the vulnerable is remarkable. To mention a few:

When you reap the harvest of your land, you shall not reap to the very edges of your field, or gather the gleanings of your harvest. You shall not strip your vineyard bare, or gather the fallen grapes of your vineyard; you shall leave them for the poor and the alien. You shall not revile the deaf or put a stumbling block before the blind. … you shall love your neighbor as yourself. You shall rise before the aged, and defer to the old. When an alien resides with you in your land, you shall not oppress the alien. The alien who resides with you shall be to you as the citizen among you; you shall love the alien as yourself, for you were aliens in the land of Egypt (verses taken from Lev.19:9–36).

This anthology from Leviticus 19 evokes the following picture: Every single human being is called to look after those who cannot take care of themselves, be it in a material, physical or social sense. Based on the guidelines in this chapter, Aarnoud Jobsen argues that Israel’s identity is shaped by holiness: a radical choice for an upright way of life.18 The continuously repeated utterances of the Divine in this chapter, where he expresses his relationship with his people, stand at the basis of this attitude. Next to the beginning and the end, the phrase “I am the Lord your God,” or “I am the Lord,” occurs another fourteen times.19 In their careful treatment of every living creature, people express themselves as holy partners of the Divine (cf. Lev.22:31–33).20

7 Old Testament Anthropology

What is a human being? What constitutes their identity? What is their position on earth? Nowadays, these are pertinent questions. Not only in relation to self-determination at the end of one’s life, but also regarding the exploitation of our planet and its natural resources. Obviously, the search for who people are and for their cultural identity is not new, but at the turn of the millennium these questions have received new emphasis, due to changing circumstances and rapid developments in society.21

As far as the interest into a biblical anthropology is concerned, Hans Walter Wolffs Anthropologie des Alten Testaments from 1973 stands at the basis.22 Wolffs point of departure is that, more than being determined by the past, people are open to the future. According to him, scripture offers a view on humankind that is built upon four categories: nephesh (throat—vitality); bashar (flesh—body); ruach (breath—spirit) and lev (heart—centre of emotion and intellect). In other words, in biblical texts people are depicted in their needy (“bedürftig”), transient (“hinfällig”), inspired (“ermächtigt”) and rational (“vernünftig”) condition. “Stereometrie” is characteristic for biblical thinking, that is to say, parts of the body also refer to functions and qualities of the individual.

Wolffs research has been criticized for several reasons. To mention two, Wolff suggests that the biblical tradition offers one, coherent view on mankind. Second, his study lacks a reflection on the history of religion. Nevertheless, scholars still regard Wolff’s study as a standard work.

As noticed above, the last two decades show a renewed interest in biblical anthropology. In the German language area, Bernd Janowski and Christian Frevel are important representatives.23 They address several hermeneutical pitfalls in this field of research. First, biblical anthropology is a historical discipline, not only with regard to the growth of these texts over centuries, but also in relation to their origin in the context of the Ancient Near East. Second, actual dilemmas, evoked by insights from evolutionary biology, gene technology and neuroscience, are not reflected upon in the Bible. Despite this, biblical anthropologists maintain that biblical notions can have relevance in moral dilemmas that show up in the first quarter of the twenty-first century.

To explore personhood in biblical writings, Bernd Janowski elaborates on the notion of a “konstellative[r] Personbegriff,” a term used by Jan Assmann to describe people in the Egyptian culture.24 Biblical Hebrew does not know a term for ‘person.’25 According to biblical standards, a person is a compiled unity—a “Kompositum.” The body consists of several components—reminiscent of the four categories of Wolff—and as part of the community, every individual plays several roles. Janowski, relying on the work of Robert Di Vito, sums up four identity markers: embeddedness, decenteredness, transparency, and dependency.26 In other words, individuals in biblical times are embedded in their social environment; the outlines of who they are, are not clearly defined; they do not possess a hidden inner world; their authenticity lies in their obedience towards and dependency from others.27

The biblical concept of humanity collides with our current self-understanding. The idea of an independent individual is deconstructed, to put it anachronistically. From a biblical point of view, the web of relations to which a person belongs does not limit their possibilities but, instead, enlarges them. Human identity in biblical times is fluid.

8 Conclusion: A Cautious Commitment

The question of which things exactly are holy, is not the proper one. The proper question is: how can something become holy? This question is inextricably linked to the question of how we can recognize holiness in something or someone. Thus, in this essay, I have not employed a material definition of holiness, but a formal one. The clue to holiness is attribution.

Jochen Schmidt’s secular interpretation of holiness, is twofold: not being at our disposal, from which an appeal emanates. The stronger the appeal that something unattainable to our interference makes on us, the closer it touches on being holy. I associate this not-being-at-our-disposal to the liturgical aspect of the biblical concept ‘holy,’ while I associate the appeal it makes to the ethical aspect. In the biblical view, there are two ways to honor that which is holy: by timidly approaching it, and by answering to the plea of those who can not defend themselves.

When applied to the issue of euthanasia, this means the following: the question of human death takes us into a realm over which we as a society do not have control. It is holy ground, which we can only approach with timidity: “Remove the sandals from your feet.” It is, moreover, a question which makes an appeal. This I consider the most essential contribution of the Christian tradition to the debate on euthanasia. The biblical concept of holiness invites us, as a society, to consider the request for ending life not as a problem to be solved, but rather as an issue in which we recognize an appeal. This involves a change of perspective. It shifts the attention away from the person making the request, to those around them—the small circle of friends and relatives as well as the larger circle of society. This is in line with the biblical concept of humanity, in which a person’s identity is constituted by their web of relations.

By introducing the notion of holiness, biblical language can contribute to overcoming the polarization between two opposing values in the debate on euthanasia: vulnerability versus autonomy. It supports the establishment of a new ‘we.’ A society which shows a sensitivity for someone’s or something’s potentially holy character, gains in quality. It will become more modest, because it acknowledges that there are issues and people on which it has no grip. Such a society will be more attentive because it is aware of how easy it is to pass by, and miss, the holy. It will also be more engaged. It will try to answer the call for careful interaction. Every person who longs for the end of life deserves our cautious commitment.

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  • Post, Henk and Bert van Veluw. Eds. 12 artikelen over voltooid leven (Twelve articles on ‘completed life’), Geloven op goede gronden. Utrecht: KokBoekencentrum, 2020.

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  • Regionale Toetsingscommissies Euthanasie. Jaarverslag 2019 Regionale Toetsingscommissies Euthanasie (Annual report 2019 Regional Euthanasia Review Committees). Den Haag: Xerox/OBT, 2020.

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  • Schmidt, Jochen. “Kultur der Heiligkeit: Über theologische Rede vom Unverfügbaren in einem säkularen Zeitalter.” Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche 113 (2016): 279290.

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  • Schmidt, Jochen. “Erzählte Heiligkeit: Über Unverfügbarkeit und Menschenwürde.” Zeitschrift für Evangelische Ethik 61 (2017): 120124.

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  • Schüle, Andreas. “Anthropologie des Alten Testaments.” Theologische Rundschau 76 (2011): 399414.

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  • Sheldrake, Philip. Spaces for the Sacred: Place, Memory and Identity, The Hulsean Lectures 2000. London: SCM Press, 2001.

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  • Trevaskis, Leigh M. Holiness, Ethics and Ritual in Leviticus, Hebrew Bible Monographs 29. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2011.

  • Tucker, Paavo N. The Holiness Composition in the Book of Exodus. Forschungen zum Alten Testament 2.98. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2017.

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  • Wagner, Andreas and Jürgen van Oorschot. Eds. Individualität und Selbstreflexion in den Literaturen des Alten Testaments. Veröffentlichungen der Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft für Theologie 48. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 2017.

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  • Wijngaarden, Els van. Ready to Give up on Life: A Study into the Lived Experience of Older People who Consider their Lives to Be Completed and no Longer Worth Living. Amersfoort: Wilco, 2016.

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  • Williams, Rowan. Holy Living: The Christian Tradition for Today. London & New York: Bloomsbury, 2017.

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1

A few verses from the poem “Aurora Leigh” from Elizabeth Barrett Browning (“Seventh Book”). It was first published in 1857. Taken from Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Aurora Leigh and Other Poems. Introduced by Cora Kaplan (London: The Women’s Press, 1978), 304.

2

See for the Dutch discussion, e.g., Gijsbert van den Brink, “Lijden in de Bijbel: Een verkenning” (Suffering in the Bible: An exploration), Lijden en volhouden, Lindeboomreeks 19, eds. Theo Boer and Dick Mul (Amsterdam: Buijten & Schipperheijn Motief, 2016), 19–35; J. Belder and A.A. Teeuw, Mijn leven voltooid? (My life completed?), Artios-reeks, (Heerenveen: Groen, 2018), esp. 105–107. See also 12 artikelen over voltooid leven (Twelve articles on ‘completed life’), Geloven op goede gronden, eds. Henk Post and Bert van Veluw (Utrecht: KokBoekencentrum, 2020).

3

Quotations from scripture are taken from the New Revised Standard Version.

4

See the annual report of the Dutch regional euthanasia review committees: Regionale Toet-singscommissies Euthanasie, Jaarverslag 2019 Regionale Toetsingscommissies Euthanasie (Annual report 2019 Regional Euthanasia Review Committees) (Den Haag: Xerox/OBT, 2020).

5

Pauline S.C. Kouwenhoven, Ghislaine J.M.W. van Thiel, Agnes van der Heide, Judith A.C. Rietjens and Johannes J.M. van Delden, “Developments in Euthanasia Practice in the Netherlands: Balancing Professional Responsibility and the Patient’s Autonomy,” European Journal of General Practice 25:1 (2019), 44–48. Cf. Lynn A. Jansen, Steven Wall and Franklin G. Miller, “Drawing the Line on Physician-Assisted Death,” Journal of Medical Ethics 45:1 (2019), 190–197. The authors propose to restrict physician-assisted death (PAD) to terminally ill people. On the experiences of Dutch pastors in questions regarding end-of-life issues, see Theo Boer, Ronald Bolwijn, Maaike Graafland, Wim Graafland and Annemarieke van der Woude, “Pastores in de PKN en hun ervaringen met euthanasie” (Pastors in the Dutch Protestant Church and their experiences with euthanasia), Kerk en Theologie 70:2 (2019), 151–172.

6

On the complexity of using biblical notions in matters of ethics, see Christian Frevel, “Orientierung! Grundfragen einer Ethik des Alten Testaments,” Mehr als Zehn Worte? Zur Bedeutung des Alten Testaments in ethischen Fragen, Quaestiones Disputatae 273, ed. Christian Frevel (Freiburg: Herder, 2015), 9–57.

7

Jochen Schmidt, “Kultur der Heiligkeit: Über theologische Rede vom Unverfügbaren in einem säkularen Zeitalter,” Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche 113 (2016), 279–90, 279. See also Jochen Schmidt, “Erzählte Heiligkeit: Über Unverfügbarkeit und Menschenwürde,” Zeitschrift für Evangelische Ethik 61 (2017), 120–124. Cf. Hans Joas, Die Macht des Heiligen: Eine Alternative zur Geschichte der Entzauberung (Berlin: Suhrkamp Verlag, 2017). In his philosophical anthropology, Joas states that holiness has not disappeared in modern societies, but instead that the perspectives on what is seen as holy have been multiplied. See also, e.g., Everyday Life and the Sacred: Re/Configuring Gender Studies in Religion, Studies in Theology and Religion 23, eds. Angela Berlis, Anne-Marie Korte and Kune Biezeveld (Leiden & Boston: Brill, 2017); Lynda Sexson, Ordinarily Sacred (Charlottesville: The University of Virginia Press, 1992); Gordon Lynch, The Sacred in the Modern World: A Cultural Sociological Approach (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012); Philip Sheldrake, Spaces for the Sacred: Place, Memory and Identity, The Hulsean Lectures 2000 (London: SCM Press, 2001).

8

Christian Frevel, “Anthropologie,” Handbuch theologischer Grundbegriffe zum Alten und Neuen Testament, eds. Angelika Berlejung and Christian Frevel (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 20123), 1–7, 2: “Leben ist für den Menschen im AT immer ein In-Beziehung-Stehen.”

9

Cf. Kathrin Liess, Der Weg des Lebens: Psalm 16 und das Lebens- und Todesverständnis der Individualpsalmen, Forschungen zum Alten Testament 2.5 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2004).

10

Cf. Franz-Josef Bormann, “Ist die Vorstellung eines ‘natürlichen Todes’ noch zeitgemäß? Moraltheologische Überlegungen zu einem umstrittenen Begriff,” Sterben: Dimensionen eines anthropologischen Grundphänomens, eds. Franz-Josef Bormann and Gian Domenico Borasio (Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter, 2012), 325–350.

11

Cf. Els van Wijngaarden, Ready to Give up on Life: A Study into the Lived Experience of Older People who Consider their Lives to Be Completed and no Longer Worth Living (Amersfoort: Wilco, 2016). In her thesis Van Wijngaarden describes the experiences of Dutch elderly people with a so-called ‘completed life’ as an incapability of making connection: with themselves, with their proxies and with society. Cf. also Nienke P.M. Fortuin, The Search for Meaning in Later Life: An Empirical Exploration of Religion and Death, Death Studies: Nijmegen Studies in Thanatology 6 (Zürich: Lit Verlag, 2020). In her thesis Fortuin distinguishes three master narratives of ageing: ‘ageing as decline,’ ‘active ageing’ and ‘ageing as inner growth.’

12

Other examples are Ps.6; 22; 49; 73. See also Walter Groß, “Zum alttestamentlich-jüdischen Verständnis von Sterben und Tod,” Sterben, Bormann and Borasio, 465–480. Cf. Tod und Jenseits im alten Israel und in seiner Umwelt: Theologische, religionsgeschichtliche, archäologische und ikonographische Aspekte, Forschungen zum Alten Testament 64, eds. Angelika Berlejung and Bernd Janowski (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009).

13

Cf. Reinhard G. Kratz, “Heiligkeit,” Handbuch theologischer Grundbegriffe, Berlejung and Frevel, 242–243. See also Erich Zenger a.o., Einleitung in das Alte Testament (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 19983), 159–162.

14

For a different view, see Leigh M. Trevaskis, Holiness, Ethics and Ritual in Leviticus, Hebrew Bible Monographs 29 (Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2011). Trevaskis proposes a symbolic interpretation of Leviticus and argues that the ritual instructions in Lev.1–16 in fact are ethical.

15

In 1877 August Klostermann used the term ‘Heiligkeitsgesetz’ for the first time, to designate Lev.17–26. Ever since, there is an ongoing debate on these chapters as an assumed independent legal corpus and on the literary dependency between the Holiness Code (H) and other priestly writings (P). For a clear overview of the history of research, see Paavo N. Tucker, The Holiness Composition in the Book of Exodus, Forschungen zum Alten Testament 2.98 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2017), esp. 10–34; Suzanne Boorer, The Vision of the Priestly Narrative: Its Genre and Hermeneutics of Time, Ancient Israel and its Literature 27 (Atlanta: SBL Press, 2016), esp. 2–34. See also Current Issues in Priestly and Related Literature: The Legacy of Jacob Milgrom and Beyond, eds. Roy E. Gane and Ada Taggar-Cohen, Resources for Biblical Study 82 (Atlanta: SBL Press, 2015); The Strata of the Priestly Writings: Contemporary Debate and Future Directions, Abhandlungen zur Theologie des Alten und Neuen Testaments 95, eds. Sarah Shectman and Joel S. Baden (Zürich: Theologischer Verlag Zürich, 2009). Cf. Christophe Nihan, From Priestly Torah to Pentateuch: A Study in the Composition of the Book of Leviticus, Forschungen zum Alten Testament 2.25 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007). The papers collected in Levitikus als Buch, Bonner Biblische Beiträge 119, eds. Heinz-Josef Fabry and Hans-Winfried Jüngling (Berlin & Bodenheim: Philo, 1999) focus on the characteristics of Leviticus as a structural unity. See, e.g., Erich Zenger, “Das Buch Levitikus als Teiltext der Tora/des Pentateuch: Eine synchrone Lektüre mit kanonischer Perspektive,” Levitikus als Buch, Fabry and Jüngling, 47–83. Zenger divides Leviticus into seven parts, with Lev.16–17 as its center.

16

Nihan, Priestly Torah, 108 (italics original).

17

Henk Leene, Newness in Old Testament Prophecy: An Intertextual Study, Oudtestamentische studiën 64 (Leiden & Boston: Brill, 2014), esp. 83–101.

18

Aarnoud Jobsen, “Leviticus en Numeri,” De Bijbel theologisch: Hoofdlijnen en thema’s, eds. Klaas Spronk and Archibald van Wieringen (Zoetermeer: Meinema, 2011), 41–50, 44: “… de identiteit van de gemeenschap van Israël [komt] tot uiting als een radicale keuze voor integer leven.” See also Thomas Hieke, “Die Heiligkeit Gottes als Beweggrund für ethisches Verhalten. Das ethische Konzept des Heiligkeitsgesetzes nach Levitikus 19,” Mehr als Zehn Worte?, Frevel, 187–206; Hendrik L. Bosman, “Loving the Neighbour and the Resident Alien in Leviticus 19 as Ethical Redefinition of Holiness,” Old Testament Essays 31:3 (2018), 571–590.

19

Lev.19:3; 4; 10; 12; 14; 16; 18; 25; 28; 30; 31; 32; 34; 36. Cf. David T. Stewart, “Leviticus 19 as Mini-Torah,” Current Issues, Gane and Taggar-Cohen, 299–323. Stewart offers a proposal for the structure of Leviticus 19 into fourteen sections, based on these sixteen self-explanations of the Lord.

20

1 Pet.1:15–16 cites Lev.19:2 and 1 Thess.4:3–7, with a call to sanctification, alludes to Lev.19. For a description of a way of living which clashes with the Lord’s holiness, see, e.g., Am.2:6–7. Cf. the Apostolic Exhortation Gaudete et exsultate (Rejoice and be glad) from Pope Francis on the call to holiness in today’s world (dated 19 March 2018). See also Rowan Williams, Holy Living: The Christian Tradition for Today (London & New York: Bloomsbury, 2017).

21

Cf. Christian Frevel, “Die Frage nach dem Menschen: Biblische Anthropologie als wissenschaftliche Aufgabe—Eine Standortbestimmung,” Biblische Anthropologie: Neue Einsichten aus dem Alten Testament, Quaestiones Disputatae 237, ed. Christian Frevel (Freiburg: Herder, 2010), 29–63.

22

Hans Walter Wolff, Anthropologie des Alten Testaments (München: Chr. Kaiser Verlag, 19742).

23

In addition to titles already mentioned, see Bernd Janowski, “Anthropologie des Alten Testaments: Versuch einer Grundlegung,” Anthropologische Aufbrüche: Alttestamentliche und interdisziplinäre Zugänge zur historischen Anthropologie, Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments 232, ed. Andreas Wagner (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2009), 13–41; Christian Frevel, “Gottesbildlichkeit und Menschenwürde: Freiheit, Geschöpflichkeit und Würde des Menschen nach dem Alten Testament,” Anthropologische Aufbrüche, Wagner, 255–274. See also Dörte Bester and Bernd Janowski, “Anthropologie des Alten Testaments: Ein forschungsgeschichtlicher Überblick,” Der Mensch im alten Israel: Neue Forschungen zur alttestamentlichen Anthropologie, Herders Biblische Studien 59, eds. Bernd Janowski and Kathrin Liess (Freiburg, Basel & Wien: Herder, 2009), 3–40. For a clear overview and evaluation of some publications on biblical anthropology, see Andreas Schüle, “Anthropologie des Alten Testaments,” Theologische Rundschau 76 (2011), 399–414.

24

Bernd Janowski, “Der Mensch im alten Israel: Grundfragen alttestamentlicher Anthropologie,” Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche 102 (2005), 143–175; Bernd Janowski, “Anerkennung und Gegenseitigkeit: Zum konstellativen Personbegriff des Alten Testaments,” Der Mensch im alten Israel, Janowski and Liess, 181–211; Bernd Janowski, “Konstellative Anthropologie: Zum Begriff der Person im Alten Testament,” Biblische Anthropologie, Frevel, 64–87; Bernd Janowski, “Das Herz—ein Beziehungsorgan: Zum Personverständnis des Alten Testaments,” Dimensionen der Leiblichkeit: Theologische Zugänge, Theologie Interdisziplinär 16, eds. Bernd Janowski and Christoph Schwöbel (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlagsgesellschaft, 2015), 1–45. See also Jan Assmann, “Konstellative Anthropologie: Zum Bild des Menschen im alten Ägypten,” Der Mensch im alten Israel, Janowski and Liess, 95–120.

25

Cf. Klaus Neumann, “Person,” Handbuch theologischer Grundbegriffe, Berlejung and Frevel, 339–340.

26

In German translation Robert A. Di Vito, “Alttestamentliche Anthropologie und die Konstruktion personaler Identität,” Der Mensch im alten Israel, Janowski and Liess, 213–241.

27

For a critical evaluation of Di Vito’s Old Testament anthropology, see the papers collected in Individualität und Selbstreflexion in den Literaturen des Alten Testaments, Veröffentlichungen der Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft für Theologie 48, eds. Andreas Wagner and Jürgen van Oorschot (Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 2017); cf. Anthropologie(n) des Alten Testaments, Veröffentlichungen der Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft für Theologie 42, eds. Andreas Wagner and Jürgen van Oorschot (Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 2015). See also Dorothea Erbele-Küster, “Biblische Anthropologie und Ethik,” Was ist theologische Ethik? Grundbestimmungen und Grundvorstellungen, eds. Michael Roth and Marcus Held (Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter, 2018), 339–351. Erbele-Küster argues that an Old Testament anthropology consists of three components: corporeality, temporality and narrativity.

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