General Index
Page numbers in italics refer to figures and tables.
Members of the imperial family and ancient authors are listed under the names by which they are known in Anglophone scholarship.
abandonment
153
.
infanticide
abortion
7, 8, 11, 37, 39–40, 43–4, 51, 86, 144, 159, 242
.
fertility control
abstinence
37, 41
.
fertility control
Acca Larentia
66–7
adoptio
113, 115
adoption
age requirement
115–16, 118, 244
of blood relatives
114–16, 124, 230, 233
danger of
115
‘fake’ adoptions
116–19
family alliances and
19, 114–15
of illegitimate children
41–2, 114
imperial family and
119n38, 126, 191, 229–40, 247
infertility and
56, 112, 116, 137
involuntary childlessness and
112–24 passim, 136–7, 244–5
limitations of
122–4, 136–7
of minors
115, 124, 244
mother – child relationship
120–2, 244–5
permanence of
116–18, 245
praise for
234–7
purpose of
113–15
surplus heirs and
64
women and
119–22, 244
adrogatio
113, 115, 119, 121
adultery
88, 136, 207, 237–8
Aelius Aristides
141
Aemilia Scaura
107–8
Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, L.
96–7, 107, 114–15
affectio maritalis
12–13
affective bonds
between non-kin
112, 120
between spouses
104, 112, 137–8
with ‘substitute’ children
124–9, 137, 138, 245
Agrippa (M. Vipsanius Agrippa)
79, 109, 193
Agrippa Postumus (M. Vipsanius Agrippa Postumus)
79, 230
Agrippina the Elder (Vipsania Agrippina)
children of
194–6, 195, 201–2, 203, 209
conflict with Livia and Livilla
84, 199
dynastic succession and
193–6, 199–202
honorific titles for
198
infelix fecunditas of
78–9, 201–2, 212
in the Octavia
203–6, 208, 211
paragon of fecunditas
54, 86–7, 205, 206
pignora pacis of
208–11
request to remarry
200–1
in statue groups
194, 196
Agrippina the Younger (Iulia Agrippina)
birth date of
195
on coinage
213
infelix fecunditas of
79
marriage to Claudius
230
murder of
203
in the Octavia
203–6
proven fertility of
26
in statue group
196
in triumph of Germanicus
97
alimenta schemes
139, 157, 183–6, 187–8, 246
alumni/ae
24, 124–6, 128, 137, 138, 245
ancestral values
.
see mos maiorum
Antonia the Younger
90, 194, 196, 199n43, 201
Antoninus Pius (T. Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus)
216, 216–17, 221–3, 232–3, 241, 247
Appian
146–7, 164–5
Ara Pacis
190
army
155–6
Asinius Rufus
92–3
Augustan marriage legislation
about
4, 7, 9, 139, 165–8
alleged failure of
44–5, 46, 175
census figures and
48
contemporary literature and
68, 163
divorce and
132, 167
historical precedents
163–5
and imperial success
142–3, 245
impetus for
48–50, 51, 163
Laudatio Turiae and
132–3
‘moral panic’ and
49–50, 51, 177, 243
praise for
175–6
remarriage and
25, 167, 169
rewards and penalties of
14, 33, 47–8, 155, 165–77, 187, 246
alimenta schemes; ius liberorum
Augusta (title)
197, 213, 214, 216–17, 224, 228, 231
Augustus (C. Iulius Caesar Octavianus)
adoption of grandsons
115n19, 230
adoption of Tiberius
153, 209, 230
criticisms of
108–10, 193
dynastic machinations of
108–10, 193, 230
on experience of fatherhood
122
grant of ius liberorum
174
physical incompatibility with Livia
54–5
precedent for succession
193, 238–9, 240
Res Gestae
163
in statue group
194
Aurelia Thaisous (Lolliane)
181–3
‘bad’ emperors
153–6, 160, 246
.
‘good’ emperors; tyrants
barrenness
.
see sterility
birth control
.
see fertility control
birth registration
48, 167–8, 181–2
.
Augustan marriage legislation
bouleutai
180–1
breastfeeding
37–9, 51, 80n151, 105–6, 124, 250
Britannicus (Ti. Claudius Caesar Britannicus)
205, 206, 209n87, 213, 230
Bruttia Crispina
222, 225–6
Caecilius Metellus Celer, Q.
108
Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, Q.
64–5, 86, 95
Caecina Severus, A.
93–4
caelibes
143n22, 176
Caligula (C. Caesar Augustus Germanicus)
adoption of Ti. Gemellus
230
assassination of
203
birth date of
195
divorce of Lollia Paulina
133–4, 207
in statue group
196
in triumph of Germanicus
97
Calpurnius Piso Frugi Licinianus, L.
232, 234
captatores
44–8, 50, 51, 113, 242
Caracalla (M. Aurel[l]ius Antoninus)
219, 222, 226–7, 231, 237–8
Carvilius Ruga, Sp.
130–1, 134
Cassius Dio (L. Cl. [?] Cassius Dio)
Augustus’ speech on marriage legislation
122, 142–3, 163–4
on Caligula’s divorce of Lollia Paulina
133–4
on divorcing fertile wives
108–9
on imperial adoptions
234–6
Cato the Elder (M. Porcius Cato)
15, 124n63
Cato the Younger (M. Porcius Cato Uticensis)
27–9
censors
131, 139–40, 143n22
census
12, 15, 48, 131, 140, 165, 182
Ceres
221
childbirth
dangers of
17, 35, 40, 60, 76–7
maternal death
35, 40, 74, 76, 77, 100–5, 107, 148, 244, 249–54
multiple births
70–8, 82, 151
physical changes from
43
‘unnatural’ births
148–52, 153, 162, 173, 187, 246
Juno Lucina; pregnancy
child exposure
.
see infanticide
childlessness
among lower classes
145–6
and captatores
44–8, 51
extent of
7, 32, 47
in imperial family
185–6, 205–8, 221–3, 225–6, 227, 229, 231n166, 232, 235–8, 247
inheritance laws and
32, 45, 121, 167, 168–9, 176
literary topos of
6, 93, 117, 122, 146–7, 153–4, 242–3
methods to overcome
9, 112–38, 244–5
misfortune of
22, 57–8, 61, 112
penalties for
14, 33, 47–8, 167, 176, 187
social pressure and
56
voluntary
5, 11, 42–50, 58, 92–3, 113, 117, 143, 145–7, 242–3
and wife-swapping
27–9
Augustan marriage legislation; infertility; orbi
child-rearing
bother of
5
cost of
23–5, 63–4, 65
experience of
115, 122, 136
financial support for
154–9, 183–6, 246
willingness for
93, 139, 145–6, 152–63, 187, 246
children
alumni/ae
124–6, 128, 245
on coinage
157–8, 158, 186, 196, 196–7, 212–29, 214, 215, 216, 218, 224, 225, 227, 229
commemoration of
17–18, 31, 103, 249, 251, 252
death of
17–18, 20, 31, 40, 59–60, 65–6, 71–7 passim, 79, 80–1, 97, 103, 148
desire for
22, 57, 60, 92–3, 96, 113, 122, 124, 127, 134, 245
as disappointments
78–81, 89
expectations of
19, 20–2, 64, 78, 89n28
financial cost of
23–5, 63–4, 65
freeborn (ingenui)
19–20, 74, 114, 141–2, 166, 244, 246
functions of
112
as future citizens
143–5, 154–8, 176
gender preferences for
64–5, 66, 95, 244
illegitimate
12–13, 41–2, 67, 88, 114, 127, 167–8, 184–5, 237–8, 239–40
marriage and
11–17, 22, 36, 50, 87–90, 112, 131, 242
mortality rates of
17, 18, 31, 38, 65–6, 71, 92, 99
mourning for
17–18, 65–6, 127, 129, 173, 249, 251, 252
and natural law
12
proving paternity of
88
public display of
96–7, 190, 196
resemblance to fathers
88, 122–4, 136
as social capital
91–7, 110–11, 112, 124, 223, 244, 247–8
and surrogate parents
129–30, 137
unborn
75, 171–2, 173
birth registration; child-rearing; fertility control; infanticide; ius liberorum; pignora/pignora pacis; ‘substitute’ children
Christianity
4
Christians
40n152, 100, 253–4
Cicero (M. Tullius Cicero)
on adoption of P. Clodius Pulcher
118–19
on the death of only sons
66
death of Tullia
17
divorce of Terentia
108
on duty to increase citizen population
143–4, 164, 175
on infertility and dream interpreters
59
on marriage connections
91
miscarriage of Tertulla
18
citizenship
140–3, 180, 184–5, 245
.
Roman state
civil wars (first century bc), casualties of
49, 50n196, 51, 143–4, 163, 165, 243
Claudia Antonia
213
Claudia Rufina
92
Claudius (Ti. Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus)
adoption of Nero
230
marriage to Agrippina the Younger
230
remarriage of
26
in statue group
196
Claudius II Gothicus (M. Aurelius Claudius)
228, 232
Claudius Pulcher, Ap.
95
Clodius Pulcher, P.
118–19
Cloelia
133, 208n82–3
Coale – Demeny model life tables
17n30, 31n104, 32n110, 47n184
coinage
about
10n32, 190–2, 212
children on
157–8, 158, 186, 196, 196–7, 212–21, 214, 215, 216
Diana Lucifera motifs
221–2, 226–8, 241
dynastic succession and
212–21, 225, 228–9, 233, 237, 241
Fecunditas motifs
190, 222–8, 224, 225, 227, 229, 247
imperial women on
186, 192, 213–28, 214, 215, 218, 224, 225, 227, 229
Juno Lucina motifs
221–3, 226, 228, 241
provincial issues
196, 198–9, 212, 213
retrospective lineage and
212, 227
collactanei
124
commemoration, funerary
of alumni/ae
128
of children
17–18, 20, 31, 128, 249, 251, 252
cost of
102, 178–9
of freedwomen
98–107 passim, 170, 249–54 passim
of ingenui
20
ius liberorum
178–9, 246
mimicked in poetry
69–70
of parents
19
precise age recorded
101, 104, 178–9, 244
of slaves
73–4, 76, 101, 249–54 passim
of triplets
72
of women
60–1, 98–107, 110–11, 131–3, 178–9, 244, 249–54
Commodus (L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus)
coinage of
222, 225–6
on coins of Marcus Aurelius
217
promotion to Augustus
231
in triumph of Marcus Aurelius
97
conception
aids for
55
medical knowledge of
37, 52–5
odds of
52–3
responsibility for
161
concubines
12–13, 41, 127, 239
.
sex workers
congiaria
157
.
largesse, imperial
conjugal loyalty
27, 29–30, 110, 130, 131–2, 134, 137–8, 244, 245
Constantine (Flavius Valerius Constantinus)
155n85, 175–6, 231–2, 236n196
Constantius I (Flavius Valerius Constantius)
231, 236n196
Constitutio Antoniniana
176, 180, 188
contraception
7, 8, 11, 37, 39, 43
.
fertility control
conubium
140, 145
corn-ear crown
197, 199, 228
Cornelia (daughter of Scribonia)
67–8, 89–90
Cornelia (mother of the Gracchi)
duty owed to mothers
20–1
exemplum of maternal loss
66, 81
infelix fecunditas of
79–81
paragon of fecunditas
54, 81, 83
proven fertility of
25–6
Cornelia Salonina (Publica Licinia Iulia Cornelia Salonina)
220–1, 222, 228, 229
Cornelius Scipio, P. (son of Scipio Africanus)
114–15
Cornelius Scipio Africanus, P.
123
Cornelius Sulla, L.
birth of twins Faustus and Fausta
70n103
divorce of Cloelia
133–4, 208n82–3
marriage of Aemilia Scaura to Pompey
107–8
cornucopia
196, 196–7, 213, 216, 227, 227–8
court, imperial
definition of
191n12
power of women at
210–11, 238
public imagery of
191–2, 194–7
courtiers
191–2
Crispinius Hilarus, C.
95–6
curatorship
.
see guardianship
daughters
expectations of
21–2
expense of raising
63, 65
fecunditas of
95
resemblance to fathers
123, 236
in triumphal processions
96–7
children
death
in childbirth
35, 40, 74, 76, 77, 100–5, 107, 148, 244, 249–54
of children
17–18, 20, 31, 40, 59–60, 65–6, 71–7 passim, 79, 80–1, 97, 148
of mothers
67–8, 98–107
of only sons
66
of paterfamilias
75
precise age at
101, 104, 178–9, 244
of spouses
25, 29–30, 61, 78–9, 89–90
of ‘substitute’ children
125–6
infanticide; miscarriages
declamatory sources
5, 15, 83n1, 87–8, 90, 135–6, 159–62
delicia
124–7, 150n59
demography
census figures
48, 165
childlessness
32
citizen population
30–1, 48–9, 139–47, 154, 162, 185, 187–8, 245–6
death of first spouse
30
family limitation
7, 30–3, 36–42, 50, 113, 242–3
fertility rates
31–2, 162
impact of civil wars and proscriptions
49, 50n196, 51, 143–4, 163, 165, 243
infant and child mortality
17, 18, 31, 38, 65–6, 71, 92, 99
life expectancy
17n30, 31
maternal mortality rates
102
paternal mortality rates
129n93
Coale – Demeny model life tables
Diana Lucifera
221–2, 226–8, 241
Didius Julianus (M. Didius Severus Iulianus)
218
Diocletian (C. Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus)
120–1, 176, 231–2
Dionysius of Halicarnassus
20, 130–1, 146, 148, 163
divination
58–60
divine displeasure
15, 57–8, 139, 148–52, 153, 162, 187, 246
divorce
abortion and
44n165
criticisms of
107–10, 111, 131, 133–4, 193, 207–8, 244
fecunditas and
83, 107–10, 111, 193, 240, 244
infertility and
56–7, 60, 112, 130–6, 137–8, 159–60, 205–8, 245
remarriage
domini
124–8
Domitia Longina
214
Domitia Lucilla
119
Domitian (T. Flavius Domitianus)
as ‘bad’ emperor
153–5
children of
214n105–6
coins of
214
on coins of Vespasian
213–14
grant of ius liberorum
154n78, 170n161
domus Augusta
.
see family, imperial
donatives
.
see largesse, imperial
dowry
2, 13, 16–17, 34, 63, 65, 125, 129, 130, 145
dream interpreters
59
Drusilla (Iulia Drusilla)
97, 195, 196, 198, 203
Drusus Iulius Caesar (son of Germanicus)
97, 195, 196, 203
Drusus the Elder (D. Claudius Drusus, later Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus)
90, 196
Drusus the Younger (Nero Claudius Drusus, later Drusus Iulius Caesar)
birth date of
109n108
death of
199, 204
debate with Caecina Severus
94
dynastic succession and
193–7, 209, 230
Germanicus and
194, 230
in statue group
194
twin sons of
196, 196–7, 213
Egypt
72–3, 180–3, 187–8, 246
Elagabalus (M. Aurel[l]ius Antoninus)
227, 237–8
elite, Roman
age at first marriage
33, 36
assimilation of values
92, 106–7
definition of
3–4
and deliberate family limitation
7, 30–3, 36–42, 50, 113, 242–3
fertility rates of
32, 51
patterns of childbearing
30–42
penalties for
33, 165
rewards for
154–5, 170–2
value of children to
19, 22, 136
and voluntary childlessness
5, 11, 42–50, 58, 92–3, 113, 117, 143, 242–3
emancipation
115n18, 116–18
emperors
adoption by
119n38, 126, 191, 229–40, 247
childlessness of
185–6, 229, 231n166, 232, 235–8, 247
as father figures
185–6
‘good’ and ‘bad’ stereotypes
153–6, 160, 184–6, 187, 246
illegitimate sons of
237–8, 239–40
influence on birth rates
152–63 passim, 175–6, 187, 246
ius liberorum granted by
56, 112n2, 153–4, 170n161, 172, 174–7
tyrannical stereotypes and
207–8
Augustan marriage legislation; largesse, imperial; Roman state; individual emperors
epitaphs
.
see commemoration, funerary
eunuchs
.
see spadones
expiation
149–52
exposure
.
see infanticide
family
affective bonds
112, 120
blended
25
continuity of
113–14, 122–3
diversity of
7, 112
ideal
1–2, 8, 52, 82, 92, 242
limitation
7, 30–3, 36–42, 50, 113, 242–3
family, imperial
about
9–10, 162, 192
adoption and
119n38, 126, 191, 229–40, 247
childlessness within
185–6, 205–8, 221–3, 225–6, 227, 231n166, 232, 235–8, 247
dynastic conflict
199–201, 226
fertility rates of
32
importance of maternal line
216–18, 225, 232–3, 240, 247
marriage within
193
pignora pacis
208–11, 247
public imagery of
190, 194–7, 212–21
succession, imperial; women, imperial; individual members
fathers
adoptive
114–15, 116, 122–3
children’s resemblance to
88, 122–4, 136
desire to be
22, 57, 60, 92–3, 96, 122, 127, 134, 155, 245
duty owed to
21–2, 64, 78
illegitimate children
41–2, 88, 114, 127, 237
and infanticide
40–1, 51
mortality rates of
129n93
political benefits for
170–1, 177, 246
potestas of
13, 67
proving paternity
88
social benefits for
83, 86, 91–7, 98n71, 110–11, 124, 139, 244
men; paterfamilias
Faustina the Elder (Annia Galeria Faustina)
212, 221–3, 232
Faustina the Younger (Annia Galeria Faustina)
association with Juno Lucina and Diana Lucifera
221, 223
betrothal to Marcus Aurelius
232
on coins of Antoninus Pius
216–17, 221
on coins of Marcus Aurelius
217–18, 218, 223–4, 224
honorific titles for
197n35, 198
loss of children
66
made to resemble Marcus Aurelius
233
paragon of fecunditas
217–18, 221
fecunditas
construction of
5, 52, 62, 82, 83, 91, 96, 107, 110, 113, 139, 185, 243, 247–8
definition of
3, 52, 82, 84–5, 110
and divorce
83, 107–10, 111, 193, 240, 244
and female slaves
142, 244
as female virtue
83–91, 99–100, 105, 107, 110, 139, 175, 177, 243–4
hierarchy of
9, 67–70, 78, 81, 85, 174, 244
hyper-fertility
63–70 passim, 78, 82, 98
infelix
78–81, 201–2, 211–12, 247
loss of
100–4, 111, 178–9, 244
as marital virtue
133, 248
praise for
52, 60, 67–70, 76, 86, 92, 98–107 passim, 145, 242, 248
pride in
83–4, 85, 100, 101–2, 156, 199
public nature of
7–8, 67, 85, 139, 151, 162, 174, 177, 187, ch. 6 passim, 243
reciprocal obligations of
110–11, 130, 138, 190, 192–3, 202, 211, 240, 244, 247
rewards for
163–77 passim
risks to
34–5, 77, 80n150
as Roman ideal
1–2, 67–70, 242
and sex workers
67, 90–1, 244
as social capital
83, 86, 91–7, 103–7, 110–11, 186, 223, 244, 247–8
sources for
3–6
tyranny and
159–62
fertility control; infertility; reproduction; Roman state
Fecunditas (goddess)
190, 222–8, 224, 225, 227, 229, 247
female virtues
.
see virtues, female
fertility
.
see fecunditas
fertility control
about
7, 30–3, 36, 242
abortions
37, 39–40, 43–4, 51
abstinence
37, 41
contraception
37, 39, 43
natural checks
37–9, 40n149
infertility
fertility rates
31–2, 51, 162
filiae
.
see daughters
filii
.
see sons
foster-children
.
see alumni/ae
freedmen/women
adoption and
114
children of
19–20, 74, 103, 141–2, 166, 244, 246
and citizenship
141–3, 166, 245
commemoration of
98–107 passim, 170, 249–54 passim
ius liberorum
19n42, 169–70, 246
privileges for
164, 165–6, 169–70
manumission; slaves
Fronto (M. Cornelius Fronto)
66
frumentationes 157
.
largesse, imperial
Fufius Calenus, Q.
108
funerary commemoration
.
see commemoration, funerary
Gaius Caesar (C. Iulius Caesar)
79, 115n19, 212, 230
Galba (Ser. Galba Imperator Caesar Augustus)
158, 232, 234–5
Galen
39n140, 40n151, 53–5, 61, 75n132, 243
Galerius (C. Galerius Valerius Maximianus)
231
Gallienus (P. Licinius Egnatius Gallienus)
220–1, 222, 228, 241
Gemellus, Ti. (Ti. Iulius Caesar Nero)
70, 194n24, 196, 196–7, 199, 213, 230
gender preferences
64–5, 66, 95, 244
genetrix orbis (title)
198
Germanicus (Iulius Caesar)
adoption by Tiberius
209, 230
children of
194–6, 195, 201–2, 209
death of
78–9, 153, 195–6, 201–2, 209
Drusus the Younger and
194, 209, 230
dynastic succession and
193–6, 209, 230
resolves mutiny
86–7
in statue groups
194, 195–6
triumph of
97
Geta (P. Septimius Geta)
219, 226, 231
gifts
.
see largesse, imperial
‘good’ emperors
153–6, 184–6, 187, 246
.
‘bad’ emperors
Gracchan land reforms
146–7
grandchildren
22–3, 95, 114, 122–3, 129, 173, 176, 196, 212, 216, 221
grandfathers
22–3, 93, 95, 122–3, 167
guardianship
169, 171, 172–3, 178, 180–3, 187
Hadrian (P. Aelius Hadrianus)
absence on coins of Trajan
215
adoption by Trajan
215n108
childlessness of
223, 235–6
coinage of
158, 186
marriage to Sabina
232
heirs
.
see inheritance; succession
Herennia Etruscilla
220, 228
hermaphroditi
150
Historia Augusta
234–6
Hortalus, M.
19n39, 23−5, 63−4
Hortensius, Q.
27–9
imperialism
139–44, 157
imperium
96
impotence
52, 53, 55–7, 62, 82, 116, 136, 243
.
infertility
impudicitia
86
infant and child mortality
17, 18, 31, 38, 65–6, 71, 92, 99
infanticide
8, 32, 37, 40–1, 51, 89, 150, 163, 242
.
abandonment; fertility control
infertility
adoption and
56, 112, 116, 137
blame for
52–5, 60–2, 136, 161, 243
divine displeasure and
57–8, 148, 187
divorce and
56–7, 60, 112, 130–6, 137–8, 159–60, 205–8, 245
male
52–60, 62–3, 82, 243
remedies for
53–4, 55, 57–8
tyranny and
159–62, 207–8
childlessness; sterility
inheritance
adoption and
64, 113–14, 116, 118, 119–21, 244
Augustan marriage legislation and
165–6, 167, 168–9, 172, 176
captatores and
44–8
family limitation and
32–3
importance of children
19, 22, 112
nomen, pecunia, and sacra
112, 114, 118
partible
15, 32–3, 65
remarriage and
15, 169
dowry
intersex
.
see hermaphroditi
Italia
157–8, 158
iustae nuptiae
12
ius liberorum
challenges of counting children
171–4
commemoration of
178–9
granted by emperor
56, 112n2, 153–4, 170n161, 172, 174–7
ideal of
92
ineligibility of illegitimate children
168
ius quattuor liberorum
169−70, 246
in late antiquity
176
practical value of
181–3
privileges of
47–8, 165, 169–73, 177
as status marker
166, 176, 177–83, 187–8, 246
universal grant
176
Augustan marriage legislation; birth registration
Julia Domna (Iulia Domna)
219, 222, 226–7
Julia Livia (Iulia Livia, daughter of Drusus the Younger)
203–5
Julia Livilla (Iulia Livilla, daughter of Germanicus)
194n24, 195, 196, 198, 203
Julia Maesa (Iulia Maesa)
227, 237–8
Julia Mamaea (Iulia Avita Mamaea)
198, 227
Julia the Elder
on coinage
212
honorific title for
198n42
infelix fecunditas of
79
marriages of
109–10, 193
Julia the Younger (Vipsania Iulia Agrippina)
79
Julius Caesar (C. Iulius Caesar)
15–16, 17–18, 143–4, 164–5, 175
Julius Obsequens
77, 150–1
Junian Latins
142, 166
Juno Lucina
221–3, 226, 228, 241
juridical authorities
on adoption
115–16, 117, 120–1
on alumni/ae
128
on establishing paternity
25, 88
on freedmen/women
166–7
on impotence
56–7
on infertility and divorce
134–5
on inheritance rights
75, 121, 172
on ius liberorum
169, 172–4
on lawful marriages
34, 128
on multiple births
74
Justinian (Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus)
56, 121, 128, 135, 176–7
Juvenal (D. Iunius Iuvenalis)
on abortions
43
on an ideal woman
84
on homosexual unions
16–17
largesse, imperial
155–9, 183–6, 187–8, 220
Laudatio Turiae (CIL 6.41062)
7n24, 60–1, 131–3, 134–8 passim, 245
legacy hunters
.
see captatores
leges
lex Aelia Sentia (ad 4)
142, 166–7, 170
lex Falcidia (40 bc)
45
lex Flavia municipalis
171–2, 174
lex Iulia de adulteriis (18 bc)
4n13, 49
lex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus (18 bc)
4n13, 14, 117, 132, 145, 165, 166–7, 174
lex Papia Poppaea (ad 9)
4n13, 14, 117, 166–7, 174
Augustan marriage legislation
Leptis Magna
194
liberalitas
157
.
largesse, imperial
Liberalitas
220
liberorum quaerendorum causa (and variants of)
12, 13, 15–16, 27
liberti/ae
.
see freedmen/women
Ligustinus, Sp.
1–2, 8, 85–6, 94–5, 242
literacy
182–3
Livia (Drusilla)
conflict with Agrippina
84, 199
divorce and remarriage of
109–10
as exemplum
94
granted ius liberorum
174, 193n17
honorific titles for
197–8
influence of
210–11
physical incompatibility with Augustus
54–5
in statue group
194
Livilla (Claudia Livia Iulia)
birth of twin boys
70–1, 196, 205, 213
on cameo gems
196–7
conflict with Agrippina
84, 199
dynastic succession and
193–205
in the Octavia
203–5
in statue groups
194, 196
widowhood of
201
Livy (T. Livius)
1–2, 85–6, 123, 145, 242
Lolliane
.
see Aurelia Thaisous (Lolliane)
Lollia Paulina
133, 207
lower class
.
see proletarii
Lucan (M. Annaeus Lucanus)
152
Lucilla (Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla)
193n19, 197–8, 198n35, 222, 224–6, 225
Lucius Caesar (L. Iulius Caesar)
79, 115n19, 212, 230
Lucius Verus (L. Aurelius Verus)
193n19, 222, 232–3
Lucretius (T. Lucretius Carus)
54, 57–8, 62, 243
Lupercalia
147–8
manumission
19–20, 114, 120n41, 141–3, 166, 169–70, 244, 245–6
Marcia Otacilia Severa
220, 222, 228
Marcia (wife of Cato)
27–9
Macrinus (M. Opellius Severus Macrinus)
220
Marcus Aurelius (M. Aurelius Antoninus)
adoption by Antoninus Pius
233
betrothal of Lucius Verus to Lucilla
193n19
betrothal to Faustina the Younger
232–3
coinage of
217–18, 218, 219, 221–2, 223–5, 224, 225
promotion of Commodus to Augustus
231
Sabratha statue group
190
triumph of
97
marriage
affectio maritalis
12, 13
Augustan legislation and
167, 168
and children
11–17, 22, 36, 50, 87–90, 112, 242
definition of
12
early age at
33–6, 51, 99, 184
and natural law
12
oath sworn to censors
131
and political alliances
19, 28–9, 36, 91, 134
polygyny
239
public nature of
7–8, 61, 82
purpose of
11, 12, 22, 28–9, 36, 50, 87, 131, 137–8, 242
between two men
16–17
validity of
13–14, 34, 133, 185
without intent to procreate
14–15
divorce; remarriage; wives
Martial (M. Valerius Martialis)
69–70, 92, 125, 154
mater castrorum (title)
198
Matidia the Elder (Salonia Matidia)
214–15, 215, 232
Matidia the Younger (Vibia Matidia)
45, 214–15, 215
matres
.
see mothers
matronae
.
see wives
Maxentius (M. Aurelius Valerius Maxentius)
231–2
Maximian (M. Aurelius Valerius Maximianus)
120–1, 175–6, 231–2
Maximinus Thrax (C. Iulius Verus Maximinus)
220
medical authorities
on breastfeeding
39
on conception
37, 52–5
on contraceptives and abortifacients
39
on infertility
53, 55, 61–2, 82, 243
on reproductive risks to young girls
35
men
age at first marriage
33, 184
anxiety over women’s control of reproduction
44, 51, 82, 84, 159, 161, 242, 247
blame and criticisms of
15, 107–10, 111, 115, 118, 131, 133–4, 161, 244
childlessness of
32, 50, 112–38 passim, 143
desire for children
22, 57, 60, 92–3, 96, 122, 127, 134, 155, 245
duty to Roman state
28, 92, 143, 145, 154
fecunditas and
83, 86, 91–7, 98n71, 100–7, 110–11, 242, 247–8
ideal
1–2, 8, 94–5, 242
infertility of
52–60, 62–3, 82, 243
ius liberorum and
170–2, 246
praise for
92–6, 242, 248
reproductive age of
14–15, 33n116
sex outside of marriage
41–2, 127
virtus and
56, 96
fathers
menarche
34, 35
menopause
14, 98, 179
meretrices
.
see sex workers
Messalina (Valeria Messalina)
on coinage
213
marriage to C. Silius
16
in the Octavia
203–5, 210
Milonia Caesonia
133
miscarriages
17–18, 33n116, 36, 60, 62, 148, 151, 162, 187, 205, 246
‘moral panic’
49–50, 51, 177, 243
mores
29, 41–2, 107, 109–10, 111, 115, 118, 123, 130, 190, 193, 211, 240
mos maiorum
50, 68, 163, 189
mothers
‘adoptive’
120–2
bereavement of
65–6, 81, 122, 151, 186
commemoration of
73–4, 76, 98–107, 110–11, 178–9, 249–54
death of
67–8, 98–107
duty owed to
20–1
and matrona
12
mortality rates of
102
mourning for
101–5, 249–54
risks to
34–5, 40, 51, 60, 70, 76–7
Diana Lucifera; wives; women; women, imperial
mourning
for children
17–18, 65–6, 127, 129, 249, 251
for loss of future fecunditas
100–4, 111, 178–9, 244
for ‘substitute’ children
125–6
for wives/mothers
101–5, 178–9, 249–54
multiple births
70–8, 82, 151, 246
munera
64, 171
Nero Iulius Caesar (son of Germanicus)
97, 195, 196, 203
Nero (L. Domitius Ahenobarbus)
adoption by Claudius
230
on coins of Claudius
213
congiaria coins of
157
divorce of Octavia
133–4, 205–8, 211
and dynastic succession
207
Fecunditas, temple to
222
‘marriage’ to Sporus
16
in the Octavia
206–7, 211
Nerva (M. Cocceius Nerva)
183n229, 185, 235–6
nomen, pecunia, and sacra
113–14, 118, 137
nuptiae
.
see marriage
nursemates
.
see collactanei
nursing
.
see breastfeeding
Octavia (play)
202–12 passim, 247
Octavia (Claudia Octavia, wife of Nero)
alleged infertility of
133–4, 205–6, 207–8
on coinage
213
dynastic succession and
207
in the Octavia
202, 206–7, 211
as pignus
209n87
orbi
44–8, 50, 51, 117, 176, 242
.
childlessness
orphans
184
Panegyrici Latini
175–6, 232
papyri
37n134, 116n27, 120n44, 139, 180–3
parents
biological vs. adoptive
117, 122–4
duty owed to
19, 21–2, 64, 78, 89n28
mourning for children
17–18, 65–6, 127, 173, 249, 251, 252
privileges for
164–6, 168–73, 177
support for
20–2, 112, 244
surrogate
129–30
fathers; mothers
Parilia
147–8
paterfamilias
12–13, 36, 62, 64, 75, 113–14, 115, 128, 168
.
fathers
paternity
25, 41, 88
pater patriae (title)
185
patria potestas
13, 67, 113, 119–20, 232n176
patronage
85, 93, 98, 129–30, 184–5, 187, 199, 212
.
largesse, imperial
pax deorum
149–52, 162
pecunia
.
see nomen, pecunia, and sacra
Pertinax (P. Helvius Pertinax)
64, 171, 218–19
petitions
56, 102, 171, 176, 181–3, 246
Philippus Arabs (M. Iulius Philippus)
220–1, 222, 228, 241
pietas
120, 128, 134
Pietas (goddess)
214n106, 221
pignora/pignora pacis
68, 89–90, 203, 206–7, 208–11, 247, 253
Plautilla (Publia Fulvia Plautilla)
222, 227
pledges
.
see pignora/pignora pacis
Pliny the Elder (C. Plinius Secundus)
on incompatibility of spouses
54–5, 243
on infelix fecunditas
79–81
on multiple births
72–3, 76
Pliny the Younger (C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus)
attitudes towards children
5, 23
on ‘good’ vs. ‘bad’ emperors
153–6, 160, 246
on imperial adoptions
234–7
on imperial largesse
158–9
mourning for Helvidii sisters
102
praise for Asinius Rufus
92–3
as surrogate parent
129–30
on wife’s miscarriage
62–3
Plotina (Pompeia Plotina)
215n108–9, 232, 237, 238
Plutarch (L. Mestrius Plutarchus)
on divorcing fertile wives
107–8
on reluctance to bear children
146–7
reproductive risks for girls
35
on ‘substitute’ children
126–7
on ‘unnatural’ births
148
on wife-swapping
27–9
polygyny
239
Pompeius Magnus, Cn. (Pompey the Great)
17–18, 67, 96, 107–8
Poppaea Sabina
26–7, 206–7, 211, 222–3
population
.
see demography
portents
.
see prodigies
potestas
.
see patria potestas
poverty
145n32, 146, 183–4
pregnancy
33, 35, 38–9, 42–3, 52, 54–5, 59–60, 62–3, 75, 76–7, 86–7, 99, 100–1
.
childbirth; fertility control; miscarriages
princeps
.
see emperors
procreation
.
see reproduction
prodigies
77, 78, 139, 148–52, 173, 187, 246
proletarii
145–6, 154–5
Propertius (Sex. Propertius)
67–70, 89–90
property
adoption and
113–14, 116, 118, 119
jointly administered
131
transmission of
15, 19–20, 22, 112
proscriptions
49, 50n196, 51, 163, 243
prostitutes
.
see sex workers
provinces
birth registrations
167–8
coinage
196, 198–9, 212, 213
imperial patronage
199, 212
ius liberorum
171–2, 178–83, 246
pudicitia
fecunditas and
83, 84–91, 110, 243, 248
meaning of
84
public display of
8
as Roman ideal
1–2, 69, 84
quintuplets
71–6 passim
registration petitions
181–3
religion
57–60, 147–52, 162
remarriage
Augustan legislation and
25, 167, 169
criticisms of
15, 133–4
elite women and
25–30, 50, 51, 242
infertility and
112, 130–6, 137, 205–8
and succession rights
15
threat to imperial succession
200–1, 239
divorce
reproduction
age of
14–15, 33n116, 34–5, 205–6
female control of
44, 51, 82, 84, 159, 161, 242, 247
and natural law
12, 75
rates of
31–42 passim, 154
risks to
34–5, 77, 80n150
social obligation of
11, 92, 143–5, 245
‘starting’
31, 33–6
‘stopping’ and ‘spacing’
31, 36–42
resemblance, family
88, 122–4, 136, 233, 236
‘right of three children’
.
see ius liberorum
Roma
144n25, 157, 194
Romanitas
4
Roman state
danger to
148–52, 187
duty owed to
11, 28, 92, 143–5, 154, 161–2, 175
expansion of
139–48, 245
health of
48, 139, 144–52, 154–6, 158, 162, 185–8, 192, 217, 245–6
infelix fecunditas and
78–9, 81
voluntary childlessness
49–50, 143, 145–7
alimenta schemes; Augustan marriage legislation; emperors; largesse, imperial
Romulus
163, 165
Sabina (Vibia Sabina)
185–6, 214–15, 215, 221, 232, 238
Sabine women
88–9, 145
sacra
.
see nomen, pecunia, and sacra
Scipio Aemilianus (P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus)
114–15
Sejanus (L. Aelius Seianus)
84, 199, 203, 204
Senate
117, 149, 151, 191, 197
senatorial elite
.
see elite, Roman
senatus consulta
SC de Pisone Patre (ad 20)
209–11
SC Silanianum (ad 10)
128
SC Tertullianum (c. ad 133)
169, 176
Seneca the Younger (L. Annaeus Seneca)
attitude towards ‘substitute’ children
127–8
on ‘good’ vs. ‘bad’ emperors
153
praise of his mother
39, 86
Septimius Severus, L.
219, 222, 226, 231, 236, 237
Setina Justa
85, 98
Severus Alexander (M. Aurel[l]ius Severus Alexander)
227, 237–8
sex ratios
41n154, 185n237, 185n239
sexual virtue
.
see pudicitia
sex workers
40, 41, 47, 66–7, 90–1, 244
.
concubines
Silius, C.
16
slaves
commemoration of
73–4, 76, 101, 249–54 passim
fecunditas and
142, 244
and freeborn children
19–20, 74, 103, 114, 141–2, 166, 244, 246
illegitimate children of
41–2, 114, 185
manumission of
74, 141–3, 169–70, 244, 245–6
as ‘substitute’ children
124–8, 137, 138, 245
freedmen/women
social capital
83, 86, 91–7, 103–7, 110–11, 112, 124, 136, 139, 186, 223, 244, 247–8
.
ius liberorum
social mores
.
see mores
sons
adoptive
116, 121, 123, 234–6
expectations of
20–2
expense of raising
63
inheritance of nomen and sacra
112
preference for
64–5, 66, 95, 244
resemblance to fathers
123, 236
succession rights of
15
in triumphal processions
96–7
children
Soranus
14n14, 35, 37–9, 41n155, 43n162, 53, 61
Sortes Astrampsychi
59–60
spadones
56, 116
Sporus
16
spouses
affective bond between
104, 112, 137–8
age difference between
21, 33, 37n130
and conjugal loyalty
27, 29–30, 110, 130, 131–2, 134, 137–8, 244, 245
desire for children
113, 122, 124, 245
incompatibility between
54–5, 243
and inheritance
172, 176
reciprocal obligations
110–11, 130, 138, 244, 247
Augustan marriage legislation; marriage; wives
Statius (P. Papinius Statius)
125–6
statue groups, dynastic
190, 194–6
sterility
53, 54, 57, 59, 78, 90, 130, 134–5, 147, 153, 160–2
.
infertility
stillbirths
.
see miscarriages
‘substitute’ children
112, 124–30, 137, 138, 245
succession
adoption and
114
ius liberorum and
169
remarriage and
15
inheritance
succession, imperial
adoption and
119n38, 126, 191, 229–40, 247
Augustan precedent for
193, 238–9, 240
blood connection, importance of
230–3, 237–40, 247
celebration of
176
on coinage
212–21, 225, 228–9, 233, 237, 241
competition for
199–201
concerns about
26, 153
cross-cultural comparisons
239–40
divorce and remarriage
108–10, 133–4, 193, 205–7, 211
early death and
79
honorific titles and
197–8
illegitimate sons and
237–8, 239–40
pignora pacis
208–11, 247
public displays of
97, 190, 194–6
tetrarchic experiment
176, 231–2, 247
threatened by remarriage
200–1, 239
women and maternal line, importance of
192–212 passim, 216–18, 225, 232–3, 240, 247
Suetonius (C. Suetonius Tranquillus)
109–10, 207
sui iuris
113, 115, 120
superstitio
57–8
supplicatio
151
.
expiation
surrogate parents
129–30, 137
Tacitus (P. [?] Cornelius Tacitus)
on childlessness
44–5
conflict between Agrippina the Elder and Tiberius
200–1
on ‘fake’ adoptions
116–18, 122
fecunditas of Agrippina the Elder
78–9, 84, 86–7, 199, 201–2
on imperial adoptions
234–6
on M. Hortalus
23–5, 64
on Nero’s divorce of Octavia
205–8
Tellus
144n25, 228
Temple of Roma and Augustus (Leptis Magna)
194
Terentia
108
Terra
226n154
Tertullian (Q. Septimius Florens Tertullianus)
27, 40, 71
Tetrarchy
176, 231–2, 247
Tetricus I (C. Pius Esuvius Tetricus)
220, 228
Tiberius (Ti. Claudius Nero, later Ti. Caesar Augustus)
adoption by Augustus
153, 209, 230
adoption of Germanicus
209, 230
and Agrippina the Elder
199–201
coinage of
196, 212–13, 216
divorce from Vipsania
108–9, 193
and dynastic succession
193–201
M. Hortalus and
23–5
rejection of honorific titles
197
in statue group
194
titles, honorific
197–9
.
individual titles
Titus (T. Flavius Vespasianus)
213–14
toga virilis ceremony
18
topoi
‘good’ and ‘bad’ emperors
153–6, 160, 184–6, 187, 246
stepmothers
25
tyrants
107–8, 207–8
univira
69–70
‘unnatural’ births
148–52
voluntary childlessness
6, 93, 117, 122, 146–7, 153–4, 242–3
young women
129
Trajan Decius (C. Messius Quintus Traianus Decius)
220–1, 228, 241
Trajan (M. Ulpius Traianus, later Caesar Nerva Traianus Augustus)
adoption by Nerva
235–6
adoption of Hadrian
215n108
alimenta schemes
183–6
childlessness of
223, 235, 237
coinage of
158, 214–15, 215
as ‘good’ emperor
154–5, 184–6, 246
grant of ius liberorum
153–4
Trebonianus Gallus (C. Vibius Trebonianus Gallus)
220
triplets
71–7 passim
triumphs
96–7
tutors
.
see guardianship
twins
70–7 passim, 100–1, 196, 196–7, 205, 216, 217, 253
tyrants
107–8, 159–62, 207–8
.
‘bad’ emperors
Ulpia Marciana
214, 215n107
unborn children
75, 171–2, 173
unicubae
98–9
univirae
29–30, 67, 69–70, 80n151, 92, 98–100, 167
‘unnatural’ births
148–52, 153, 162, 173, 187, 246
.
prodigies
uxores
.
see wives
Valerian (P. Licinius Valerianus)
220
vanity, accusations of
11, 38, 42–4, 86, 242
Venus Genetrix
221
vernae
124–8, 137, 245
Vespasian (T. Flavius Vespasianus)
209, 213–14, 219, 231
Vestal Virgins
148, 169, 174
Veturia (mother of Coriolanus)
20–1
Vipsania Agrippina (first wife of Tiberius)
108–10, 194
virtues, female
list of
84, 105
models of
61, 68–9, 83, 85, 86–7, 105
fecunditas; pudicitia
virtus
56, 84n5, 96, 186
Vistilia (mother of Milonia Caesonia)
67, 133
Vitellius, A.
213, 214
Vitellius, L. (father of emperor)
26
voluntary childlessness
5, 11, 42–50, 58, 92–3, 113, 117, 143, 145–7, 242–3
wet nurses
37n134, 38–9, 106, 124
widowhood
of imperial women
201
perpetual
168n151, 177, 201
and remarriage
25, 29–30, 167
vulnerability of
21, 81
wife-swapping
27–9
wives
fecunditas and divorce
83, 107–10, 111, 193, 240, 244
ideal
1–2, 30, 67–70, 92, 242
infertility and divorce
60, 130–6, 159–60, 205–8, 245
mourning for
101–5, 178–9, 250–4
virtues of
84–7, 105
Diana Lucifera; marriage; mothers; univirae; women
women
adoption and
119–22, 244–5
age at first marriage
33–6, 51, 99, 184
blame and criticism of
11, 15, 38, 42–4, 52, 60–1, 63, 78–9, 82, 86, 136, 161, 243
commemoration of
60–1, 98–107, 110–11, 131–3, 178–9, 249–54
construction of fecunditas and
5, 52, 62, 82, 83, 91, 96, 107, 110, 139, 247–8
death in childbirth
35, 40, 76, 77, 100–5, 107, 148, 244, 249–54
decision to bear children
20, 159, 246
duty to Roman state
28, 144–5, 161–2, 175
hyper-fertility
63–70 passim, 78, 82, 98
ideal
69, 83, 84, 89–90, 92
infertility of
52–63 passim, 130–6, 159–62, 187, 205–8
ius liberorum and
85n10, 166, 169–70, 175, 178–83, 187–8, 246
lack of potestas
120–1
praise for
29–30, 38, 39, 52, 60–1, 67–70, 76, 86, 92, 98–107 passim, 160, 242, 248
proven fertility of
25–9, 50, 62, 83, 90, 107–10, 111, 122, 124, 173, 244
and remarriage
25–6, 50, 167, 242
reproductive age of
14, 34–5, 132n116
‘voices’ of
6
mothers; wives
women, imperial
adoption and
119n38, 229–30, 232–3, 238–40
alimenta schemes and
185–6
on coinage
186, 192, 213–28, 214, 215, 218, 224, 225, 227, 229
dynastic succession and
192–212 passim, 216–18, 225, 232–3, 240
as exempla
54, 86–7, 94, 189–90, 202–12 passim, 217–18, 240, 247
honorific titles for
197–9
and indirect praise of imperial men
193–4, 197
infelix fecunditas of
78–9, 201–2, 211–12, 247
Julio-Claudian
190, 192–212, 240, 247
power at court
210–11, 238
public imagery of
194–7
remarriage of
200–1
as symbolic mothers
198, 221
Tetrarchy and
231
in triumphs
97
widowhood of
201
individual women