Figures
0.1 Mauro Perani with the Team of the Institute of Microfilmed Hebrew Manuscripts. From the right: Nachum Wissenshtern, Binyamin Richler, Yael Okun, Mauro Perani, Doron Goldstein and Ezra Chwat. Jerusalem, February 26, 2009 X
1.1 The late Professor Israel Ta-Shma (1936–2004), Director of the Institute of Microfilmed Hebrew Manuscripts of Jerusalem, in 1991 5
2.1 The late Professor Joseph Baruch Sermoneta (1924–1992), the founder in 1981 of the “The Italian Genizah Project”, delivers his talk at the first congress on this subject, celebrated in Nonantola on May 16, 1992; on the left, the Chair Fausto Pusceddu 8
2.2 Professor Yosef Baruch Sermoneta, the founder of “The Italian Genizah Project” in 1981, at the first Conference on this research, held in Nonantola, on 16 May 1992, between Benjamin Richler on the left and the late Professor Vittore Colorni (1912–2005) on the right 17
2.3 Registers at the Urbino State Archive: medieval Hebrew parchment manuscripts reused in bindings 17
2.4 Registers at the Municipal Archive of Bazzano (Bologna Province). Medieval Hebrew parchment manuscripts reused in bindings, including many Talmudic fragments 18
3.1 A fragment of an early Italian Bible from c. 1200 CE; Modena State Archive, Hebr. Fr. 221.2 28
3.2 Judith Olszowy-Schlanger examines a Talmudic bifolio after the detachment at the Frati & Livi Laboratory, Castel Maggiore (Bologna), October 14, 2011 28
3.3 Judith Olszowy-Schlanger and Mauro Perani with a bifolio from a 13th century Sefardic Bible. The letters are of cm 15 and cm 20 for the final and elongated ones. The photo was taken just after detachment at Frati & Livi Laboratory 29
3.4 Small notarial register called Basterdelli bound with an ancient 11th Hebrew Bible, cutting a folio perpendicularly, at the Archivio di Stato of Camerino 30
3.5 Emma Abate and Vadim Putzu with a section of a Torah scroll reused as bookbinding, at Archivio Storico della Comunità Ebraica di Roma 31
4.1 Benjamin Richler at the Bologna State Archive examining the Hebrew manuscript folios, reused as bookbinding, 18 May 1992 40
4.2 Benjamin Richler at the Modena Archivio Storico Comunale, examining the Hebrew folios reused as bookbinding, 19 May 1992 41
4.3 A folio from a Babylonian Talmud, copied in Italy in the 12th–13th century, from the Notary Archive in Città di Castello, hebr. fr. 3 42
5.1 This 1592 register at the Bologna Archivio di Stato is bound with a bifolio from a Bible. The notary, Ludovicus Zanuttinus, certifies on the first page the authenticity of his register, describing its characteristics and pointing out that it is bound with a parchment, written in Hebrew letters 52
5.2 The register is bound with the Heb. frag. 101 53
5.3 First page of the register authenticated by the notary 54
5.4 In this register, too, the notary remarks that the register is bound with a Hebrew parchment manuscript 55
5.5 Hebrew bindings at the Urbino State Archive and one in Latin 63
5.6 Mauro Perani with a Talmudic Bifolio, October 14, 2011 64
5.7 Mauro Perani, examining a Hebrew binding at the Modena Archivio Storico Comunale, 19 May 1992 65
5.8 Phase of cleaning after detachment of a Hebrew bifolio at the Frati & Livi Laboratory, October 14, 2011 65
5.9 A Talmudic bifolio, containing part of Gittin, Bazzano, Archivio Storico Comunale, Hebr. Fr. 10 66
5.10 Benjamin Richler at the Modena Archivio Storico Comunale, examining the Hebrew manuscript folios, reused as bookbinding, 18 May 1992 67
6.1 The first folio from the Teshuvot of R. Hayyim Or Zarua‘ found in Trento, Biblioteca Capitolare, Ms. 60 79
6.2 The second folio from the Teshuvot of R. Hayyim Or Zarua‘ found in Trento, Biblioteca Capitolare, Ms. 60 80
7.1 Andreas Lehnardt and Mauro Perani with a Hebrew binding, the bifolio hebr. fr. 131.1, containing part of Numbers, from an Ashkenazi manuscript from the 13th century, Bologna State Archive, May 14, 2008 87
7.2 Simcha Emanuel at the Frati & Livi Laboratory, during the detachment of a Talmudic bifolio, Castel Maggiore (Bologna Province), November 21, 2011 88
7.3 An example of reusing paper sheets of Hebrew manuscripts, glued together to make the binding cardboards of the notarial protocols at the Arxiu Historìc in Gerona 89
7.4 Gerona, Arxiu Històric, July 16, 1998. From the left: Abraham David, Benjamin Richler, of the Institute of Microfilmed Hebrew Manuscripts, then annexed to the Jewish National and University Library in Jerusalem, with Mauro Perani, examine the sheets of paper Hebrew manuscripts, glued together and used since the early fourteenth century to make the cardboard plates of the binding of the notaries registers 89
7.5 Folio, containing a part of the Torah, editio princeps, printed in Bologna on January 24, 1482. This precious copy, printed on parchment, was dismembered for reuse as bookbinding. Correggio, Archivio Storico Comunale, Hebr. Fr. 35.1 91
7.6 Folio from a Babylonian Talmud, found in Bazzano (BO), Hebr. Fr. 27.1 95
7.7 An ancient Bible from the 12th century, with the Tiberian extended pointing, in the Archiepiscopal Archives of Bologna; fr. Heb. B.I, Capitular, cart. 308/92; Perani-Campanini catalog, p. 137 105
7.8 Archive of the Curia in Bologna; an example of a binding made with a sheet of a Latin manuscript and an extension of a piece of a Hebrew manuscript, in the register containing a Liber Mandatorum of the years 1621–1626; Hebr. fr. Foro Sgabello, III 86/2 106
7.9 Archivio Generale Arcivescovile di Bologna, Visitationes ecclesiarum Diocesis Bononiensis 1556, Registro I.P.143, bound with several sheets of Talmudic texts, and on the right the sign of the Notary’s signum tabellionis or sign of the tabellionate (his personal logo) and its official heading on the first page 107
7.10 In the same previous figure from the Archivio Generale Arcivescovile di Bologna, Visitationes ecclesiarum Diocesis Bononiensis 1556, Registro I.P.143, we have a rare example of a binding of a register made with two Talmudic bifolios, fixed together with a reinforcement notch cut from the same Talmudic sheet to anchor the strap closing the register. The readable sheet contains the Babylonian Talmud, treatise Berakhot 13b 108
8.1 Commentary to the tractate Nazir. Bologna State Archive, Hebr. fr. 268 115
8.2 Unknown text, containing a commentary to the Mishnah, Seder Tohorot. Bologna State Archive, Hebr. Fr. 466 120
8.3 Bifolio from a Sephardic Babylonian Talmud copied in the 12th–13th centuries, containing Ro’sh ha-Shanah 11b–13a and 20b–22b, reused as bookbinding in the Municipal Archive of Bazzano (Bologna Province), hebr. fr. 2 124
9.1 A folio from the early Bible, copied in Apulia in the 12th century. Nonantola, Archivio Storico Comunale, Hebr. Fr. 2 155
9.2 Another folio from the same early Bible, copied in Apulia in the 12th century. Archivio di Stato di Modena, Hebr. Fr. 208 156
9.3 Another folio from the same early Bible, mutilated in the upper part about a third and containing the end of the book of Ezekiel, with the Aramaic text alternating between each verse of the Hebrew text; Archivio di Stato di Perugia, Hebr. fr. 9 156
9.4 A folio from the same Bible from the 12th century. Nonantola (Modena Province), Archivio Capitolare, Hebr. Fr. 80. It contains the end of Shir ha-Shirim and the beginning of Qohelet 157
9.5 Detail of the script of the previous figure. Nonantola, Archivio Capitolare, Hebr. Fr. 80. The system of pointing and accent is the Tiberian extended 157
9.6 A vertically cut one-and-a-half column from an ancient ca. 1200 Bible with the Tiberian vowel extended system; Archivio di Stato di Camerino, Hebr. fr. 5 158
10.1 The first page of the unknown commentary to Psalm 1–13 by Yosef Kara; Imola, Sezione di Archivio di Stato, Archivio Storico Comunale, hebr. fr. 17.1 165
10.2 Fragment 2a recto and 2b verso of the unknown commentary to the Deuteronomy by Yosef Kara, Imola, Sezione di Archivio di Stato, fr. Hebr. 12.2, recto and verso 166
10.3 Folio of the unknown commentary to Deuteronomy by Yosef Kara, Bologna, Archivio di Stato, Hebr. Fr. 469.1 167
10.4 Commentary to Deuteronomy by Yosef Kara, Bologna, Archivio di Stato, Hebr. Fr. 509.1 173
11.1 Andreas Lehnardt with a magnificent large format Talmudic bifolio, Archivio di Stato, Bologna, 15 May 2008 188
11.2 Folio from an early 12th century Talmud Yerushalmi copied in southern Italy and reused to bind a notarial register kept at the Bologna State Archive, hebr. fr. 275; containing part of Berakhot 7d–8b and 10b–10d 190
11.3 A page from a bifolio containing the Yerushalmi Talmud, Shevi‘it from the 12th century. Bologna, Archivio di Stato, Hebr. Fr. 107.2 191
11.4 The abecedaries of the XII century Yerushalmi Talmud, drawn by the editor. Bologna, Archivio di Stato, Hebr. Fr. 107.2 192
11.5 A page of the 12th century Mishnah with vowels and accents, found in Nonantola, Archivio Storico Comunale, Hebr, fr. 306, containing Pesaḥim. The pricking was done on two external margins of the bifolio but only on one internal margin 195
12.1 A page of the 12th century Mishnah with vowels and accents, found in Modena, Archivio Storico Comunale, Hebr, fr. 53 199
12.2 The left page of the bifolio from the 12th century Mishnah with vowels and accents, found in Modena, Archivio Storico Comunale, Hebr, fr. 53 200
13.1 The recto and verso side of the small fragment of the Tosefta, found in 1990 at the Ravenna State Archive, Faenza Section, reused as reinforcement notch anchoring the closing straps 204
13.2 The Norcia Tosefta before its detaching 210
13.3 The recto side of the strip cut from a different sheet, glued at the top in the Tosefta folio as a binding elongation 211
13.4 The verso side of the entire folio of the Norcia Tosefta 211
13.5 First part of the abecedaries of the Norcia Tosefta letters. Graphic elaboration by the author 212
13.6 Second part of the abecedaries of the Norcia Tosefta letters. Graphic elaboration by the author 213
14.1 Detail of the Yerushalmi Talmud, frag. 574. In the fourth line from the bottom, a sign like the number 6, indicating a section end, can be pointed out as a characteristic of the 11th century Otranto School 221
14.2 The new bifolio frag. 651, f. 1v, containing Megillah 1,13–1,14 before the detachment 221
14.3 The ruling of the lines does not match exactly the pricking holes 222
14.4 A catchword in the lower margin in the bifolio, frag. 651 222
14.5 In the bifolio frag. 652 the margin on the left shows 41 pricked holes for 41 ruled lines 223
14.6 Bologna, ASBO Hebr. Fr. 564, T.Y., Otranto, 11th c. Scribe 1 225
14.7 Yerushalmi Talmud, Bologna, ASBO Hebr. fr. 651, Scribe 2 226
14.8 Bologna, ASBO, T.Y., 11th century, Hebr. Fr. 651 and 652, Scribe 2 226
14.9 Yerushalmi Talmud, Bologna, ASBO Hebr. Fr. 652, scribe 2 227
14.10 Graphic elaboration of the letters of the Sefer Torah copied in Italy in 1091/92 227
14.11 Yerushalmi Talmud, Bologna, ASBO Hebr. fr. 652, Scribe 2 228
14.12 Yerushalmi Talmud, Bologna, ASBO Hebr. fr. 652, Scribe 2. The end of the treatise Megillah and the beginning of Ḥagigah written in square bigger letters 228
14.13 Graphic fillers 230
14.14 Twice L-Adonay Elode Yiśra’el 230
14.15 Twice af 230
14.16 Ben R. Yoḥanan 230
14.17 Amar Rabbi 230
14.18 Chapter alef 230
14.19 She-ne’emar 230
14.20 Alef without left stroke 230
14.21 Erroneous taw corrected and tokh added over the line 230
14.22 Adonay Elodekha 231
14.23 Le‘azar 231
14.24 Pinqas 231
14.25 Ke-neged 231
14.26 The abecedaries of the letters of Scribe 1 in Bologna T.Y. hebr. frs. 564 and 574. Graphic elaboration by the author 231
14.27 The abecedaries of the letters of Scribe 2 in Bologna T.Y. hebr. frs. 651 and 652. Graphic elaboration by the author 232
14.28 Part 1 of the comparison between the abecedaries of the letters – from left – of Scribe 1 in Bologna T.Y. hebr. frs. hebr. frs. 564 and 574, Scribe 2 in Bologna T.Y. 651 and 652, and the letters of Sifra, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Hebrew ms. 31. Graphic elaboration by the author 233
14.29 Part 2 of the comparison between the abecedaries of the letters – from left – of Scribe 1 in Bologna T.Y. hebr. frs. 564 and 574, Scribe 2 in Bologna T.Y. 651 and 652, and the letters of Sifra, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Hebrew ms. 31. Graphic elaboration by the author 234
15.1 Bologna Hebr. fr. 652 1r- yMeg 1,11 (72a line 10) – 1,12 (72a line 70) 260
15.2 Bologna Hebr. fr. 652 1v yMeg 1,12 (72a line 70) – 1,13 (72b line 59) 261
15.3 Bologna Hebr. fr. 651 1r yMeg 1,13 (72b line 59–72c line 50) 262
15.4 Bologna Hebr. fr. 651 1v yMeg 1,13 (72c line 50) – 1,14 (72d line 30) 263
15.5 Bologna Hebr. fr. 651 2r yMeg 4,4 (75a line 67) – 4,5 (75b line 50) 264
15.6 Bologna Hebr. fr. 651 2v yMeg 45 (75b line 50) – 4,11 (75c line 32) 265
15.7 Bologna Hebr. fr. 652 2r yMeg 4,11–12 (75c line 32–75d line 4). Then yḤag 1 (lines 16–19) 266
15.8 Bologna Hebr. fr. 652 2v yḤag 1 Mishnah, then 1,1 (75d line 19–76a line 13) 267
15.9 The abecedaries of the Bologna, Hebr. Fr. 651. Graphic elaboration by the editor 268
15.10 The abecedaries of the Bologna, Hebr. Fr. 564. Graphic elaboration by the author 269
16.1 Side one of the She’iltot found in Ravenna, frag. 1 274
16.2 Side two of the She’iltot found in Ravenna, frag. 1 274
16.3 Side one of the She’iltot found in Ravenna, frag. 2 275
16.4 Side two of the She’iltot found in Ravenna, frag. 2 275
16.5 The script of the She’iltot 275
17.1 The register of the Catastri Ferraresi before restoration. A strip cut from the She’iltot manuscript, reused to reinforce the back of the register is clearly visible. Ravenna, Archiepiscopal Archive 277
17.2 Extract from the She’iltot manuscript with a script similar to the 10th century North African square writing, used also in Sicily 278
17.3 Fragments from the Cairo Genizah, from Kairouan (Tunisia), dated 977–978 with a script similar to the Ravenna She’iltot; held in Cambridge, University Library, T-S. 12. 468. Partial picture from M. Beit-Arié, and E. Engel, Specimen of Medieval Hebrew Scripts, Vol. II, The Sefardic Script, n. 1 279
17.4 Detail of the last part of the She’iltot manuscript with the colophon and ownership notes 280
17.5 The abecedaries of the She’iltot script. Graphic elaboration by the author 281
17.6 Judith Olszowy-Schlanger, examining the fragments of She’iltot, at the Archivio Arcivescovile of Ravenna, October 12, 2011 281
18.1 The volume Svpplementi delle Croniche del J. Philippo, printed in Venice in 1535, bound in Italy, reusing two sheets of a Latin and Hebrew manuscript in the spine, held at the Columbia University Library in New York 285
18.2a and 18.2b The ms. C.C.C. 469 kept at the Corpus Christi College Library in Oxford, acquired in Italy 286
18.3 A page, reused as binding, of the moneylender register active in Bologna in the 15th century 287
18.4 Folio from the fragment of Halakhot Gedoloth found as a bookbinding of Ulisse Aldrovandi’s codex; on the visible side of the guard sheet the Hebrew text has been deleted 290
18.5 Two fragments of a sheet containing the Halakhot Gedoloth preserved in Leipzig at the University Library of Leipzig 291
18.6 A fragment of the Halakhot Gedolot 294
18.7 Script of the Halakhot gedolot of Leipzig 294
18.8 Script of the Halakhot gedolot of Bologna 294
18.9 The Italian script of an early Bible, copied around the year 1200 CE. Modena, Archivio Capitolare, Hebr. Fr. 80. The system of pointing and accent is the Tiberian extended 295
18.10 Compared to the Bologna and Leipzig manuscript script 295
18.11 The Italian script of an early Bible copied around the 11th–13th centuries, Modena, Archivio Storico Comunale, Hebr. Fr. 5 295
18.12 Compared to the Bologna and Leipzig manuscript script 296
18.13 The Italian writing of the Ms. Budapest, National Széchényi Library, A 50, Kaufmann Mishnah, 11th–12th century 296
18.14 Compared to the Bologna and Leipzig manuscript script 296
18.15 The Italian script of fragments of a Bible from the 12th c. held in Macerata, Archivio di Stato, Hebr. Fr. 734, with the Tiberian extended system of pointing and accent, and the targum after each verse 296
18.16 Compared to the Bologna and Leipzig manuscript 296
18.17 Italian writing from a Bible, Hebr. Fr. Fano, Archivio di Stato, Notarile, Volpelli Antonio, prot. B 297
18.18 Compared to the Bologna and Leipzig manuscript 297
18.19 Ms. Karlsruhe, Badische Hof- und Landesbibliothek, Codex Reuchlin 3 of the Bible, MPMA III, Ms. 48, from the year 1105/6, with the Tiberian extended system of pointing and accent 297
18.20 Compared to the Bologna and Leipzig manuscript 297
18.21 The Italian script of a Bible, found in Camerino, Archivio Storico, Hebr. Fr. 5, with the Tiberian extended system of pointing and accent 298
18.22 Compared to the Bologna and Leipzig manuscript 298
18.23 The Italian script of a fragment from the ‘Arukh by Natan ben Yeḥi’el; Modena, Archivio di Stato, Hebr. Fr. 90 298
18.24 Compared to the Bologna and Leipzig manuscript 298
18.25 The Italian script of the Mishna codex, Parma, Biblioteca Palatina, ms. 3173 (Richler 720) Scribe 1 299
18.26 Compared to the Bologna and Leipzig manuscript 299
18.27 Abecedaries of the Italian script in Bologna and Leipzig Halakhot Gedoloth 299
18.28 Abecedaries of the Italian script in the Kaufmann Mishna codex, first part 300
18.29 Ownership note of Fran [ciscus] Monarius [utriusque iuris doctor] collegit 304
18.30 Ownership note of Marci Antonij Carratij 304
18.31 Ownership note of Marcus Antonius Carratius 305
19.1 Bologna, University Library, folio 1 containing Halakhot Gedolot, Hilkhot Yibum we-Ḥalitza 318
19.2 Bologna, University Library, folio 2 containing Halakhot Gedolot, Hilkhot Me’un 319
19.3 Leipzig, University Library, Leipzig, Germany, Ms Hebr. frag. 5.1 Halakhot Gedolot 320
20.1 The bifolio of Sifre to the Deuteronomy from a sefardic manuscript from the XIII–XIV centuries, found in Nonantola, Archivio Storico Comunale, Hebr. Fr. 223 325
20.2 Page of the Sifre to the Deuteronomy from a sefardic manuscript from the XIII–XIV centuries, found in Nonantola, Archivio Storico Comunale, Hebr. Fr. 223 326
20.3 Page of the Sifra on Leviticus from a sefardic manuscript from the XIII–XIV centuries, found in Nonantola, Archivio Storico Comunale, Hebr. Fr. 219 327
20.4 Page of the Sifra on Leviticus found in Modena, Archivio Storico Comunale, Hebr. Fr. 30.2, a sefardic manuscript from the XIII–XIV centuries 328
20.5 Page of the Sifra on Leviticus, found in Modena, Archivio Storico Comunale, Hebr. Fr. 30.3, from the same sefardic manuscript of the two previous figures, from the XIII–XIV centuries 329
20.6 Page of the Mekhilta de-Rabbi Yishma‘e’l, found in Modena, in the Archivio Storico Comunale, Hebr. Fr. 30.1, a sefardic manuscript from the XIII–XIV centuries 330
20.7 From the left, Prof. Menahem Kahana at his home, with Prof. Mauro Perani in the center and Doctor Abrahan David. Jerusalem, February 26, 2009 340
20.8 The 13th century bifolio of the most ancient manuscript of the Midrash Tanḥuma, Buber, reconstructed by bringing together the four strips that reinforced the spine of a volume in which it had been cut; Ravenna, Archivio della Curia, Hebr. fr.? 340
20.9 Judith Olszowy-Schlanger recomposing the four strips of the Tanḥuma Buber, held at the Ravenna, Archivio Arcivescovile 341
21.1 The printed volumes whose front and back binding cartons were wrapped with sheets of the Manuscript of Sifre; among them many of the works of Saint Augustine and some medical works 352
21.2 Typology of the binding: a bifolium that wraps the spine of the book, in brown leather, and a second bifolium cut in two halves, one at the top and one at the bottom. The Hebrew text on the side that appears on the outside has been deleted, but the text on the inside often appears, well preserved, but mirrored. In the figure the mirror Hebrew text has been fixed by rotating it horizontally with Photoshop 353
21.3 The operator of the Frati e Livi Laboratory of Castel Maggiore (Bologna) while detaching the manuscript from the paper to which the internal side had been glued, 17 February 2012 354
21.4 Detaching the manuscript from the cardboard to which it had been glued 354
21.5 The inner side of the bifolio, cut at the top, but with the text perfectly preserved 355
21.6 Professor Mauro Perani, after the detaching, is reassembling the bifolios of the manuscript 355
21.7 The recomposition of the bifolio cut in two halves and reused to wrap the part towards the edge of the book 356
21.8 Recomposition of a bifolio, cut horizontally into two pieces, darkened in the upper part for the lower half and the lower part for the upper half due to the strip glued on the leather spine with the titles of the work 356
21.9 The Estense manuscript was systematically proofread by a 16th century sage who used a special marking as I and II and other to denote the beginning of hundreds of expositions, and also emended the manuscript version in notes that he added above the line and in the margins. Examples in the folio 10.1 357
22.1 Archivio di Stato di Modena, Hebr. Fr. 750.2: (I) Upper part: a still unidentified text about cosmological and theosophical subjects, expanding a quotation from Abraham Abulafia’s Sitre Torah. (II) The following text: Commentary on Sefer Yetzirah of ‘Azri’el of Gerona 372
22.2 Archivio di Stato di Modena, Hebr. Fr. 750.2: from the same manuscripts, a notable, although fragmentary version of the Commentary on the Ten Sefirot (part of his Commentary on the Prayers) of Menaḥem Recanati 373
22.3 Correggio (RE), Archivio Storico Comunale, hebr. Fr. 5.1: a folio from the XIII–XIV centuries sefardic manuscript of the Commentary on the Torah, Deuteronomy chap. 32–33 by Moshe ben Naḥman. In the fourth line from the top, a censorship, deleting the words considered anti-Christian, karhan shel minim i.e. “the obstinacy of the Gentiles” is visible 374
22.4 Urbino, Archivio di Stato, Hebr. Fr. Notalile 1793 n. 13, Frr. 1–2; Pseudo-Rabad, Commentary on Sefer Yetzirah; the actual author is Yosef ben Shalom Ashkenazi 375
22.5 Modena, Archivio di Stato, Hebr. Fr. ASMO 141, Megillat Setarim, a supercommentary by Shemu’el Ibn Motot on Avraham ibn ‘Ezra’s Commentary on the Pentateuch, from a Sefardic manuscript of the XIV century 376
Map
7.1 The map of Italy and its regions where fragments of Hebrew manuscripts have been found. In Italy almost 16,000 fragments were found and, among this large number, about 7,000 fragments have been unearthed in Emilia Romagna alone, racing almost a half of all the Italian fragments, mainly concentrated in the State Archives of Modena and Bologna. Highlighted in orange is the Emilia Romagna, while the other regions highlighted in yellow gave us a number of fragments. Very few fragments were also found in Puglia, Sicily, Sardinia, but due to the scarcity they appear in blank. In the southern regions almost no fragments have been found because in the mid-16th century the Jews were already expelled from these regions. Many Jews moved up to the central and northern regions of the Italian Peninsula, taking with them their manuscripts, which we have found dismembered and reused as bookbinding in the archives of those regions 83