Tuna Fisheries Conservation and Management in the Pacific Islands Region Implications for Korean Distant Water Fisheries

The Korean tuna fishing fleet has a long history of participation in the tuna fisheries of the Western and Central Pacific Ocean (wcpo), the largest tuna fisheries in the world. As one of the largest distant water fishing fleets operating in the wcpo, Korea has a strong interest in maintaining access to both eez s and the high seas, and ensuring sustainability of the region’s tuna stocks. The regulatory environment for tuna fisheries in the wcpo is complex and multi-layered, with regional, sub-regional and national legislation, regulation and policies all affecting tuna fishing vessels and operations. Management of tuna fisheries within Pacific Island eez s is increasingly being tightened, including through the introduction of zone-based management approaches, and Pacific Island countries are also advocating for improved management of tuna fishing in the high seas. While all four primary tuna species in the wcpo are currently considered healthy, catch rates and economic conditions in the southern and tropical longline fisheries are in decline and catch reductions will be necessary to improve catch rates and increase economic returns for longline vessels. Within this context, the Korean distant water fishing fleet will need to strengthen engagement and cooperation with Pacific island States in order to maintain their competitiveness. Report on the Second Session of the Preparatory Conference for the Establishment of the Commission on the Conservation and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in the Western and Central Pacific, Suva, Fiji, University of the South Pacific; S. Tarte, (2002), Report on the Third Session of the Preparatory Conference for the Establishment of the Commission on the Conservation and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in the Western and Central Pacific, Suva, Fiji, University of the South Pacific; S. Tarte. (2003) Report on the Fourth Session of the Preparatory Conference for the Establishment of the Commission on the Conservation and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in the Western and Central Pacific, Suva, Fiji, University of the South Pacific; S. Tarte, (2003) Report on the Fifth Session of the Preparatory Conference for the Establishment of the Commission on the Conservation and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in the Western and Central Pacific, Suva, Fiji, University of the South Pacific; S. Tarte, (2004), Report on the Sixth Session of the Preparatory Conference for the Establishment of the Commission on the Conservation and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in the Western and Central Pacific, Suva, Fiji, University of the South Pacific.


Introduction*
The tuna fisheries of the Western and Central Pacific Ocean (wcpo) comprise the largest tuna fisheries in the world, with catches producing 54% of the global tuna catch in 2019 worth an estimated US$5.8 billion.1 The Republic of Korea has been fishing within the wcpo since 1958 and remains one of the largest distant water fishing fleets in the region. The catch of tuna by Korean vessels has increased from less than 1000 mt a year in the early 1960s, to over 100,000 t in the late 1980s, and has fluctuated between 200,000 mt and 310,000 mt a year from 2000-2018. In 2019, Korean vessels reported a total wcpo catch of 347,508 mt,2 representing the highest total annual catch yet reported by Korea.3 This equated to a total value of approximately US$666 million ( Figure 1).
Initially the Korean fleet was comprised of longline vessels only, with purse seine vessels added to the Korean fleet in 1980.5 The number of vessels in the wcpo Korean fleet peaked in the 1970s, with over 250 active longline vessels catching a mix of bigeye, yellowfin and albacore.6 More recently, the Korean longline fleet has declined to 97 active vessels in 2019 with a total annual longline catch of 32,936 mt. The current longline fleet primarily targets bigeye and yellowfin, taking smaller amounts of blue marlin and albacore.7 The Korean purse seine fleet has been relatively stable over the past two decades with between 25 and 29 vessels active in the wcpo.8 While the number Korean longline Korean purse seine 1 9 9 7 1 9 9 8 1 9 9 9 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 2 0 0 4 2 0 0 5 2 0 0 6 2 0 0 7 2 0 0 8 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5 2 0 1 6 2 0 1 7 2 0 1 8 2 of vessels hasn't increased over this time, the catch of these vessels has, from around 141,899 mt in 19999 to 314,572 mt in 2019.10 As with all purse seine vessels in the wcpo, the majority of catch by the Korean purse seine fleet is skipjack, which typically account for more than 70% of annual tuna catches.11 As one of the largest distant water fishing fleets operating in the wcpo, and record high catches in 2019, Korea has an interest in ensuring they continue to have access and economically viable operations in the wcpo tuna fisheries. This paper provides an overview of the current status of tuna fisheries in the region, and the regional and national regulations that govern them in focused case studies exclusive economic zones (eezs). The paper concludes with a 9 spc, supra note 3. 10 Lee, et al, supra note 2. 11 spc, supra note 3.   ). Of these species, stock assessments of the Pacific bluefin tuna and North Pacific striped marlin indicate that the stocks are overfished and overfishing is occurring,16 and the assessment of Southwest Pacific striped marlin indicated that overfishing is not occurring but the stock is likely overfished.17 There are also concerns related to overfishing of some shark species that are targeted and/or taken as bycatch, including the Oceanic Whitetip shark and Silky shark, while the stock status of a number of other shark species has not been assessed. 18 The largest wcpo fishery in terms of catch is the purse seine fishery, with 285 vessels responsible for just over 2 million mt of catches in 2019. This accounts for 70% of the total wcpo tuna catch. The majority (65-77%) of 16  China, Chinese Taipei, Korea and Japan are the four largest distant water longline fleets operating in the wcpo in terms of fleet size, catch volumes and bigeye catch quota. Collectively they accounted for 75-83% of the longliners active in the wcpo during the period 2011-2015.22 There are two primary longline fisheries operating in the wcpo, the tropical longline fishery which typically targets bigeye and yellowfin tuna for the sashimi market, and the southern longline fishery comprising of typically smaller vessels targeting albacore for canning markets.23 There is no clear geographical boundary where the catch composition shifts from tropical species to albacore dominance, and some vessels have the ability to switch targets and move between both fisheries depending on seasonality and abundance of key species.24 While the stock assessment indicates that South Pacific albacore biomass is well above the limit reference point, catch rates are considered below those 19  198 levels that produce beneficial economic outcomes for most fleets.25 Without significant reductions in longline effort, projections of future stock status of albacore predict further declines from 0.52 sb f =0 to 0.39 sb f =0 by 2035, with cpue estimated to decrease by 36% relative to 2013 levels (when longline fishery catch rates were considered adequate to meet economic objectives).26 An interim target reference point of 0.56 sb f =0 was agreed by wcpfc in 2018, which would result in an 8% increase in cpue compared to 2013 levels.27 In order to achieve this however, significant reductions in albacore catch and effort will need to be made across the fishery.
Economic conditions in the tropical longline fishery have also been declining, driven by declining catch rates and fish prices, and it is projected that trend will continue through to at least 2026.28 Catch and effort reductions will be needed in order to increase the biomass of yellowfin and bigeye, and therefore increase catch rates in the tropical longline fishery.

Key Regional Policies and Regulations for Foreign Fishing Vessels
The wide-spread and migratory nature of tuna in the wcpo means that fishing occurs across a number of jurisdictions and the regulatory framework is multi-layered. A range of other international bodies have regulations and requirements relevant to distant water fishing, including the International Maritime Organisation (imo) and the International Labour Organisation (ilo). A range of requirements are also applied by market States including the European Union, Japan and the US, and seafood buyers and consumers are increasingly influencing fisheries through market certifications schemes such as the Marine Stewardship Council. The primary mechanisms currently influencing the management of wcpo tuna fisheries are discussed below. the Majuro Declaration, reaching a conclusion at the seventh session of the mhlc in Honolulu, USA in September 2000.33 These negotiations were often contentious, but despite their controversies, the mhlc was ultimately successful in that it produced the world's first tuna rfmo Convention that fully reflected the provisions of the United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement.34 In so doing, the mhlc incorporated many of the modern principles and standards of fisheries governance that had recently developed. However, the negotiations failed to resolve some fundamental disagreements and consequently depended upon ambiguous language to progress agreement and enable the wcpf Convention to be adopted. In summary, the mhlc was unable to agree on defined northern or western boundaries, and adopted an eastern boundary that partly overlapped with the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (iattc). The mhlc also deferred interpretation of contentious matters relating to application to archipelagic waters, compatibility of management across eez s and high seas, and criteria for 'real interest' to the Commission. While the mhlc provided guidance on various conservation and management issues, it failed to address a fundamental disagreement on whether the Commission should allocate fishing rights throughout its membership for all the highly migratory fish throughout their range. At the Seventh Session of the mhlc, the Chair concluded negotiations after all efforts at reaching agreement had been exhausted, and formally presented a draft text The Seventh Session of the mhlc also adopted a resolution to organise the establishment of the Commission. This initiated seven preparatory conferences that met from 2001 to 2004. Despite significant early tensions and attempts by the USA, Japan and Korea to reopen the Convention, these Preparatory Conferences were ultimately successful in resolving outstanding matters. By the conclusion of these Conferences, Japan, Korea, China, France and Tonga had all committed to support the new Commission. This was a significant achievement and ensured that the Commission enjoyed sufficient participation.36

Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (wcpfc)
Since entering into force in 2004, the wcpfc has adopted numerous measures on matters ranging from data and reporting requirements through to catch limits, spatial and temporal restrictions and species specific regulations. The primary conservation and management measure (cmm) that regulates the management of tropical tuna species (skipjack, bigeye and yellowfin) is cmm 2018-01 and its various predecessors. cmm 2018-01 restricts activities in 35  the purse seine and longline fisheries, in particular, through provisions such as catch and effort limits, retention of catch requirements, and limits on the number of large purse seine and longline vessels. Restrictions specific to purse seine fishing include (but are not limited to) an annual three month prohibition on fishing upon fad s and an additional two month fad closure in the high seas, a limit on the number of fad s a vessel can deploy, a limit on the number of days each fleet can fish in the high seas and a limit on the number of days that can be fished by any fleet within coastal States eez s. The Korean fleet is limited to a maximum of 207 days of purse seine fishing in the high seas (between 20°N and 20°S).
Major distant water longline fleets have bigeye catch limits under cmm 2018-01, with Korean flagged longline vessels allowed a maximum catch of 13,942 t of bigeye tuna across the wcp-ca (both within eez s and high seas). cmm 2018-01 also contains a range of explicit instructions for the application of the various limits, restrictions and obligations, and provisions regarding the operational catch and effort reporting requirements. The cmm is regularly reviewed and updated, with the next review due at the wcpfc Regular Session in December 2020, where it is likely that members will decide to simply extend the measure for another year due to covid restrictions preventing the wcpfc from meeting in person to re-negotiate the measure.
There are also a range of other wcpfc cmm s which prescribe restrictions and requirements. These include cmm 2015-02 which limits the number of vessels fishing for South Pacific albacore south of 20°S, and a number of cmm s for the management of other secondary and protected species including swordfish, striped marlin, sharks, sea turtles and cetaceans. A number of cmm s have also been agreed that specify monitoring, control and surveillance requirements, such as vessel registration, reporting, boarding and inspection, observers, Vessel Monitoring Systems (vms), transhipment, and port state measures.37

Pacific Island Forum Fisheries Agency (ffa)
The ffa is an inter-governmental agency with 17 member countries and territories,38 whose purpose is to strengthen national capacity and regional Register, through to transhipment, reporting, vms and crew employment conditions. Collaboration among ffa countries has also lead to the development of a range of arrangements between sub-sets of the ffa membership, including the Parties to the Nauru Agreement (pna) and the Tokelau Arrangement.

3.3
Parties to the Nauru Agreement (pna) The pna include the eight Pacific Island countries whose eez s produce around 80% of the tropical tuna caught in the wcpo and 50% of the world's skipjack tuna.41 The pna countries work together to cooperatively manage their tuna fisheries, with the primary tool being the purse seine and longline Vessel Day Schemes (vds).42 The purse seine vds limits the purse seine fishery across the pna eez s through an agreed Total Allowable Effort (tae), which is then distributed among the participating countries as Party Allowable Effort (pae). Each country then distributes their pae among fleets and vessels through mechanisms of their choice (e.g., auction, tender, bilateral agreement, domestic vessel priority), in accordance with basic rules agreed among all countries. The vds allows trading of days between countries, and allows pooling of days, where purchasers of the pooled days can use them anywhere in the participating countries eez s.43 The pna purse seine vds tae is based on 2010 effort levels; a year where pna members considered that reasonable catch rates and economic conditions existed in the purse seine fishery, and which is used as a reference point for the wcpfc agreed interim Target Reference Point for skipjack. These 2010 effort levels (44,033 days) are also reflected in the effort limit for pna countries (as a group) in cmm 2018-01 Attachment 1, Table 1. pna Members have an agreed minimum benchmark price, currently set at US$8,000, for a purse seine vds day in any eez, but typically they are being sold well above that price. Havice et al44 report that bilateral vds days were selling for US$9,000 -$10,000 in 2019, while sub-regional pool vds days were priced at US$12,500, and days under the US Treaty multilateral arrangement were US$13,600 a day.
The pna also introduced the Longline Vessel Day Scheme in 2017, which establishes a tae for longline effort in all parties '  allocated longline pae s.45 Similar to the purse seine vds, vessels participating in the longline vds are required to pay for each fishing day, and trading between countries is allowed. While there is substantive demand for purse seine vds days, the longline vds has not yet been fully subscribed and days are sold at a flat price set by each country. In addition to limiting fishing days, the pna has a common set of requirements for purse seine and longline vessels fishing within their eez s, which include restrictions on fad use, transhipment at sea, fishing in high seas pockets and requirements for reporting and observers.46 While some of these requirements are consistent with those in wcpfc cmm s, some of them (such as the prohibition on fishing in high seas pockets) go beyond wcpfc obligations.
The vds is complemented by the Federated States of Micronesia Arrangement for Regional Fisheries Access (fsma) which allows vessels that are based within pna countries discounted licences and reciprocal access to other pna countries eez s.47 The intent of the fsma is to provide preferential treatment for domestic vessels and incentivise domestic economic development initiatives.

The Tokelau Arrangement for the South Pacific Longline Fishery (tka)
The tka came into effect in December 2014, with the objective of increasing participant's control of the South Pacific albacore fishery, improving stock management and increasing economic returns. There are 11 countries48 participating in the arrangement, which includes interim Total Allowable Catch limits for albacore within the eez s of each participating country.49 It is the responsibility of each participating country to implement their catch limit, and there are no requirements as to how countries do that. The group has been negotiating more detailed implementing arrangements, but these are yet to be agreed. As such, participating countries are currently using a range of different approaches to comply with their voluntary limits, ranging from vessel level quota allocations through to national caps on licences numbers.

Marine Stewardship Council (msc) Certification
Although not a regulatory tool, a number of tuna fisheries in the Pacific have msc certifications which involve additional management or traceability requirements for participating vessels. These certifications all have conditions which the certification client (typically an industry group) is responsible for meeting.
There are seven wcpo purse seine fisheries currently certified, including the pna free-school fishery and the png Fishing Industry Association fishery, and eleven certified longline fisheries in the wcpo.50 Although only the vessels within the unit of certification are required to meet the requirements and conditions of certification, the growing number of certifications in the wcpo is influencing the introduction of new measures across the fishery, such as the development of harvest strategies and catch documentation schemes.
Korea's largest fishing company, Dongwon Industries, successfully gained msc Certification for their free-school purse seine fishery (skipjack and yellowfin) in October 201951 and their longline fishery (for yellowfin, bigeye and albacore) in June 2020.52 These certifications both include conditions that require Dongwon to actively work to ensure that wcpfc harvest strategies (including harvest control rules) are developed for the certified species. The failure of wcpfc to agree and implement harvest strategies and control rules over the next 2-5 years would compromise all msc certifications of tuna fisheries in the wcpo.

Pacific Island Countries' Regulations and Policies for Foreign Fishing Vessels
Overlaying the regional and sub-regional regulatory framework are the regulations and policies that apply at a national level when fishing in a coastal State's eez. The primary requirement of all coastal States, in accordance with the United Nation Convention on the Law of the Sea, is that all foreign vessels must obtain an authorisation to access and fish in their eez. There are three primary forms of access agreements for fishing in Pacific Island countries. The most common are bilateral access agreements where a distant water fleet (either the government or an industry association or company) and a Pacific Island country negotiate an agreed payment for fishing access opportunities. There is also a multilateral access agreement between the USA and ffa members which grants USA flagged purse seine vessels access to the waters of 15 Pacific Island Countries.53 The third approach is where foreign vessels are granted access through registering domestically or making onshore investments in Pacific Island countries.54 There were 14 Korean owned vessels involved in joint ventures with four Pacific Island Countries in 2019.55 Ultimately, agreements are individually tailored depending on the political, economic and environmental considerations of the flag state seeking access, and the country whose eez they are seeking to operate.56 There are various requirements for the foreign vessels entering into this kind of arrangement, and different potential benefits, depending on the Pacific Island country. It is widely recognised that the terms of access agreements and associated fees are negotiable, and are often linked to the provision of foreign aid and development assistance.57 The conditions placed upon the access under any of these approaches would be a mix of mandated conditions (e.g. reporting, monitoring and compliance requirements) and negotiated conditions, such as limits on the number of vessels, fishing days or tonnes of catch allowed.
The fisheries development and management priorities of ffa Member countries have been expressed in the Regional Roadmap for Sustainable Pacific Fisheries58 and more recently in the Pacific Islands Forum Fisheries Agency Strategic Plan 2020-2025.59 Strategies for offshore fisheries outlined in the Regional Roadmap include effective zone-based management, reducing iuu fishing, restricting high seas fishing by foreign fleets, improving employment standards, and building processing capacity in the region. These strategies, in particular establishing zone-based management and constraining high seas fishing, contribute to ffa Members broader objective to take control of wcpo fisheries to ensure their sustainable future.60 The intention to implement zone-based management has been expressed by ffa members at the wcpfc and is recognised in the cmm 2018-01 preamble. The zone-based management approach involves the establishment of a total limit on catch or effort across participating eez s, allocating a share of the limit to each of those participating countries, and then each country managing that allocation within their zone. This approach is a deliberate movement away from the historically dominant flag-based approach, where limits and allocations have been based on historical activity by flagged States.61The Vessel Day Scheme (vds) implemented by the pna countries is an example of the zone-based management approach.
The success of the vds in dramatically increasing the revenue obtained by pna countries for access to their tuna resources, has contributed to the intention of ffa countries to implement zone-based approaches in other fisheries, including the tropical longline fishery and the South Pacific Albacore longline fishery.62 Optimising the economic and social benefits that ffa Member countries derive from their tuna resources features in the goals of the Regional Roadmap and as an outcome in the ffa Strategic Plan. They are committed to rebalancing of the distribution of wealth or "rent" from fisheries resources between distant water nations and coastal States.63 All Pacific Island countries have an interest in maximising the return from the sale of access rights to foreign fleets, or a combination of this and 58 ffa spc (2015) 65 Many Pacific Island countries rely on that revenue, with it representing more than 60% of the gdp of some ffa Members. 66 The social and economic conditions in each Pacific Island country differ, as does the infrastructure available to support fishing activities. As such, the development and economic interests of each ffa Member varies. While some are primarily interested in government revenue from access fees (particularly those without a large port, such as Tokelau and Nauru), others seek onshore development, transhipment and employment opportunities.
Some Pacific islands have been actively pursuing the development of their domestic tuna fishing fleets, in particular through charter arrangements and reflagging of vessels. Growth over the past two decades has resulted in the combined Pacific Island domestic fleet now comprising of 133 vessels. Pacific Island vessels have dominated the purse seine fishery since 2003, with their 2019 catch of 851,794 mt almost equalling the combined catch of the next five largest fleets (Japan, Korea, Chinese Taipei and USA).67 This growth in vessels chartering and reflagging to Pacific Island fleets has been fuelled by the incentives of beneficial access arrangements between Pacific Island eez s under the fsma, and Pacific Island vessels exemptions to fad closures and high seas effort limits provided under wcpfc cmm s. 68 The ffa Regional Roadmap recognises that only some countries have aspirations for increased processing capability and includes a strategy to establish regional processing hubs in two or three ffa countries.69 Processing plants in the Pacific Islands currently process around 100,000 mt of tuna, primarily in the larger facilities in png, Solomon Islands and the Marshall Islands, although smaller processing facilities also exist in a number of other Pacific Island countries.70 Although png s processing plants currently operate below capacity, a number of challenges exist to growth in the regional processing capability including the attractiveness of the investment environment, land tenure issues, and access to infrastructure (roads and ports), water and labour.
Another priority for ffa Members, expressed at wcpfc and in broader international development fora is climate change, which Island countries consider an existential threat.71 Tuna are known to be sensitive to changes in temperature and oxygen levels, and are therefore expected to be affected by warming and deoxygenation associated with climate change.72 Simulations undertaken by the Pacific Community (spc) using the seapodym modelling framework found that the impact of climate change on stocks will differ for the four key tuna species, with skipjack and yellowfin tuna predicted to be adversely affected by declines in the stock abundance through the remainder of this century and an eastern shift of biomass. Bigeye is predicted to suffer less of a decline and projections suggest that the albacore stock may benefit from warming waters leading to an increase in the area for favourable spawning conditions. The projections suggest that an increasing proportion of the catch of all four key tuna species will be taken in international waters than at present.73 The forecast movement of fish and fishing effort into the high seas, increases the urgency of ffa members aspirations to progressively restrict fishing on the high seas by foreign fleets. The rationale for this goal is twofold, (1) to improve management of tuna across their stocks, with the high seas currently subject to less oversight and control, and (2) to increase demand (and therefore price) for access in eez s. The Regional Roadmap signals that ffa Members will pursue tighter controls on high seas fishing through the wcpfc, which are likely to include hard catch and effort limits74 and more comprehensive mcs.

Key Challenges and Recent Developments in Pacific Tuna Fisheries
Regional fisheries discussions in the Pacific have long focussed on the purse seine fishery, being the largest fishery in terms of catch and value, in particular on the management of fad s. There has been a continual increase in the use of fad s since the 1990s, resulting in an estimated 30,700-64,900 fad s 211 deployed annually in the wcpo in 2016 and 2017.75 The proportion of fad sets vs free-school sets in the wcpo purse seine fishery fluctuates at around 40%, with variations depending on time of year and the location of fishing. Purse seine vessels have a greater reliance on fishing upon fad s further east in the fishery.76 While fad s improve purse seine fishing efficiency, they also have negative impacts, including increased catch of juvenile bigeye, increased rates of bycatch, entanglement of protected species and marine debris. Under cmm 2018-01, wcpfc now has in place a suite of fad management mechanisms, including a three month fad closure across the fishery plus an additional two month fad closure in the high seas. An alternative fad set limit option is also allowed under the tropical tuna cmm, however few countries utilise this option.
ffa members are becoming increasingly concerned at the number of drifting fad s which are abandoned or lost. Approximately 8% of deployed fad s are estimated to end up beaching, while 29-39% are estimated to be drifting deactivated (without any owner tracking their trajectories), so the fate of those fad s was unknown.77 These lost and abandoned fad s impact on marine ecosystems and damage vulnerable coral reefs, and contribute to marine pollution due to plastic components. The deactivation of drifting fad s, and subsequent loss, may also breach marpol regulations. A recent study has also found that drifting fad s are legally 'fishing' throughout all stages of use, with resulting obligations on member States to ensure that they are effectively managed and monitored throughout all stages of use.78 pna Members in particular are continuing to drive progress in fad management, with current initiatives including a fad tracking and registration program.79 This program improves the ability of authorities to monitor fad movement, detect when fad s are deployed and fished upon, and better manage the marine debris associated with discarded fad s. Some Pacific Island countries are also pushing strongly for a wcpfc requirement that fad s be constructed from biodegradable, non-entangling materials. pna and ffa Members, together with ngo s and other coastal States, are likely to continue to push for improved fad monitoring, increased use of biodegradable materials, and reduced deployment and discarding of fad s across the wcpo.
A key feature of the current wcpfc agenda is the development of harvest strategies for key tuna species. The intention of the harvest strategies is to provide a decision framework for management responses to changes in the status of stocks. A Harvest Strategy Workplan was first adopted by wcpfc in 2014 and is updated annually.80 Progress on adopting the various elements of harvest strategies has been slow, but key elements have been agreed (at least in interim form) for skipjack.
As these harvest strategy discussions progress, it has become evident that in order for them to be effectively implemented, allocations of total catch or effort for each species across the wcpfc member countries are necessary.81 In recent discussions, wcpfc Member's positions on allocation are increasingly being expressed, including in relation to high seas fishing opportunities, allocations under cmm 2018-01, and potential allocations under a revised cmm for south Pacific albacore.
ffa Member statements and delegation papers to wcpfc repeatedly advocate for greater recognition of coastal State rights in allocations, and equitable distribution of fishing opportunities, particularly in the high seas. Given that cmm 2018-01 includes a commitment to establish hard catch or effort limits and an allocation framework for purse seine in 2020 and longline in 2021, discussions on allocation are expected to be a significant feature of forthcoming wcpfc annual sessions.82 Allocation discussions and the harvest strategy development process have exposed the lack of robust economic information currently available to inform wcpfc processes. As a result, improved economic data collection and monitoring of economic aspects of fisheries will be increasingly called upon to inform managers and decision-makers.83 Despite the lack of robust economic data, the economic losses and risks to sustainable management from Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (iuu) fishing are well recognised in the region. A 2016 report estimated that 306,400 mt of product was either harvested or transhipped involving iuu activity in Pacific tuna fisheries, with an estimated value of $616.11 million usd. The vast majority of this involved licenced vessels misreporting, fishing during the fad closure or illegally transhipping.84 Pacific countries consider this loss as a threat to their ability to maximise the economic benefits that can be obtained from their tuna resources, and a threat to the future sustainability of tuna as a source of food and revenue. As such, they continue to pursue a suite of mechanisms to improve monitoring and control of fishing across the region, with a particular focus on the high seas.
One focus area for reducing the opportunity for iuu activity is transhipment. wcpfc prohibits high seas transhipment, however flag states can be granted exemptions if it has determined that it is impracticable to operate without being able to tranship in the high seas.85 With almost twice as many vessels authorised to tranship in April 2019 as those who were unauthorised, this prohibition is widely considered to have been unsuccessful.86 ffa Members have repeatedly stated their objective to have all transhipments undertaken in port,87 and there have been global and regional calls by ngo s to ban at sea transhipment. Pacific Island countries are opponents of high seas and at sea transhipments. Expressing concerns with the transparency of these operations, the masking of non-compliance, and the potential that this practice enables other illegal activities such as human trafficking and smuggling,88 Pacific Island countries would prefer transhipment happen in port where comprehensive compliance checks can be undertaken. In addition, transhipment in port is a significant revenue source for some Pacific Island countries, where fees can be charged for transhipment and broader economic benefits can be derived from activities associated with vessels resupplying in port.89 The wcpfc Convention itself requires ccm s to encourage transhipment in port90 however at-sea transhipment contributes to the economic viability of 84  larger longline vessels. Given the strong opposition from some distant water fishing nations, it is unlikely that a wcpfc comprehensive ban on transhipment will be agreed in the short-term. Nonetheless, increased scrutiny of at sea transhipment can be expected, including an enhanced monitoring regime (including fishing and carrier vessel observers), verification of transhipment activity and compliance, and additional measures to encourage increased transhipment in port. Another focus area in the effort to reduce iuu activity is the implementation of electronic reporting and electronic monitoring. The more modern fleets and industry groups are already using electronic reporting mechanisms, however it is not universally implemented, and the data collected isn't always shared with appropriate authorities for fisheries management purposes. Management and stakeholders are increasingly expecting near real-time provision of data, particularly as catch limits become more broadly adopted in national and regional fishing regimes.
There have been discussions on em at wcpfc for a number of years, with the work currently being led by the wcpfc E-Reporting and E-Monitoring Working Group that reports to tcc. Some companies have already implemented em on vessels and a number of Pacific Island countries are trialling em on their domestic longline vessels. While observers have long provided a useful verification mechanism for operational logbook data (electronic and hard copy), coverage of observers on longline vessels remains low. With electronic monitoring technology, it is becoming a more accessible option to monitor longline activities and verify operational data. The suspension of observer requirements amidst the covid-19 pandemic, due to the risk to observers, has amplified the increased calls for implementation of electronic monitoring across fleets.91 Attention has increased on the issue of labour standards in fishing and fish processing in recent years. Commercial fishing is considered one of the least safe workplaces worldwide, with fatality rates estimated at 80 deaths per 100,000 individuals per annum.92 In 2017 at the United Nations Oceans Conference, over 60 of the world's largest tuna seafood industry operators (as well as a number of ngo s and Governments) committed to eliminating any form of slavery and meeting internationally recognised social standards.93 A number of private standards also now incorporate human rights matters. After the deaths of three Indonesian fisherman aboard a Chinese fishing vessel in early 2020, Indonesia recently raised human rights abuses in the fishing industry with the United Nations Human Rights Council.94 Labour conditions were first addressed at the wcpfc in relation to observer safety, with a cmm on observer safety adopted in 2017.95 There are a range of national and international laws and guidelines in place and major industry players are also responding to this increased focus after the uncovering of human rights abuses and trafficking in the tuna industry by ngo s in recent years.96 ffa Members have also recently revised their Harmonised Minimum Terms and Conditions to include a number of requirements related to crew employment conditions. Scrutiny on port States, flag States and fishers home States to monitor and enforce the existing laws and requirements, and to improve standards, is increasing.97

Korean Distant Water Fishing Vessels
In order to continue to participate in Pacific tuna fisheries, Korean distant water fishing vessels will need to access fishing opportunities in the high seas, compete for access in eez s, and comply with evolving regional and national obligations.

Drifting Fish Aggregating Devices (dFad s)
The Korean-flagged purse seine fleet are considered to be modern, efficient and largely profitable, with the highest catch rates of any distant water fleet.98 They also have among the lowest use of drifting fad s among major distant water fishing nations operating in the wcpfc.99 Over the past decade (2010-2019) a quarter of the sets undertaken by Korea's purse seine fleet have been on drifting fad s which is less than the fishery wide average of 33%. arrangement.105 This competition for limited days or catch has increased the price of access, and consequentially removes less efficient vessels from the fishery that have a lower capacity to pay. The efficiency and profitability of Korean vessels enhances their ability to pay for increasingly competitive access within eez s, and to purchase high seas opportunities in the case that any future limits placed on the high seas are allocated and tradeable. Despite the move toward market based sale of access, many Pacific Island countries will continue to provide preferential access or discounted access rights where domestic fisheries development or other employment of onshore benefits are provided.106 As such, Korea would benefit from maintaining good relationships with Pacific Island countries, both within the wcpfc forum and at diplomatic levels.

6.4
High Seas Fisheries The implementation of the pna vds, the long-standing cooperative efforts of Pacific Island countries, and the pursuit of zone-based management approaches has allowed Pacific Island countries to gain greater control over the tuna resources in the Pacific and greater influence over wcpfc processes. 107 A key area where ffa members are seeking to use this influence at wcpfc is in the push to tighten control of the high seas and implement high seas management measures that are compatible with the mechanisms in place within their eez s. 108 The wcpfc Convention109 prescribes that conservation and management measures shall be compatible across the high seas and waters under national jurisdiction, without prejudice to the sovereign rights of coastal States (Article 8).
Korean longliners have increased the proportion of their fishing that is occurring in the high seas, as opposed to in Pacific Island eez s, over the period 2010-2017,110 while Korea's current high seas purse seine effort is relatively small. Given that climate projections are suggesting that there will be an increased proportion of tuna fishing occurring in the high seas as a result of climate change, access to the high seas will remain important.111 In response, In conclusion, the Korean industry is well positioned to strengthen its comparative competitive and engagement in the region, if it is willing to demonstrate its commitment to sustainable development, and engage cooperatively with the development aspirations of the Pacific islands region. hanich et al.