The Revival of Palestinian Christianity Developments in Palestinian Theology

Palestinian Christians are a minority of approximately 1 or 2% in a context marked by conflict, expulsions, and ongoing emigration. Despite all this, Palestinian Christians have made a significant contribution to society in the spheres of politics, the arts, sci-ence, and social welfare. Moreover, from the 1980s onwards, this Palestinian context of struggle has also been the source for the emergence of a socially and politically committed contextual theology. This article analyses the development of Palestinian contextual theology by examining theological publications by Palestinian theologians. It identifies liberation, reconciliation, witness, ecumenism, and interfaith-dialogue as some of the dominant theological themes. What unites these publications is a theological engagement with the Palestinian Christian identity in the context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

diplomat in Egypt, Boutros Boutros-Ghali (1922, is a more recent example of an Arab Christian with social and political influence, having served as Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1992 to 1996. In terms of public visibility and engagement, Arab Christians have also been influential in the arts and sciences. For example, the voice of Lebanese Greek Orthodox singer Fairuz (b. 1935) is regularly heard on radio broadcasts all over the Levant. Born in an Anglican Palestinian family, literary critic Edward Said  has been one of the most influential thinkers in recent scholarship, well-known for his theory of Orientalism.4 Arab Christians have also been influential in social welfare, for instance in the flourishing of the press in 19th and 20th century Lebanon and Egypt, not to mention their influence in the areas of education and health care, mainly due to their contact with Western missionary work.5 This article contests the common and rather pessimist discourse on Christians in the Middle East. Themes of suffering and the impending disappearance of Middle Eastern Christianity seemed to dominate in the writings of historians such as Frenchman Jean-Pierre Valognes and American Philip Jenkins, but also appeared in the works of more popular writers such as Scottish William Dalrymple.6 Christians in the Middle East, Palestinian Christians included, do indeed live in vulnerable circumstances with declining numbers. Statistics of the World Christian Database reveal that Christians 4 Edward W. Said, Orientalism (London: Penguin Books, 2003[1978). Born to a Protestant family, Said identified as a secular humanist. However, Said was the keynote speaker during Sabeel's first international conference in Tantur Ecumenical Institute in Jerusalem in 1990, a clearly Christian-oriented event (which will be referred to later in this article). make up 0.82% of the population in the Palestinian Territories and 2% of the population in Israel.7 These Palestinian Christians live as a tiny minority in a context marked by armed and ideological conflict, expulsions, and ongoing emigration. Palestinian Christians are suffering from the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and-as Middle Eastern Christians in general-from the rise of militant Islamic groups. On top of that, about half of the Palestinian population lives outside the borders of the historical Palestine of 1948,8 which makes them a people in diaspora. Consequently, Palestinian Christians are often categorised as "a threatened form of Christianity", "a Christian neighbour to the Muslims", or "a minority in need of help (from the West)".9 While acknowledging the harsh situation in which Palestinian Christians are living, this article aims to demonstrate how Palestinian Christians have brought about a revival and played a significant role in creating a society based on the principles of justice, peace, and reconciliation. This article specifically focuses on the public role of Palestinian contextual theology as reflected in Palestinian theological works. Accordingly, the first part of the article presents the historical and theological developments since the 1980s, and the second part reviews the scope of Palestinian theology. This article therefore functions as an overview of Palestinian theology and distinguishes itself from earlier presentations by prioritising the contextual developments in various local churches that contributed to the revival mentioned above. In the author's opinion, it is more fruitful to study theological developments in their broader, holistic context instead of taking a more enumerative, systematic approach, which merely focuses on thematic perspectives such as liberation, the Bible, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, or the influence of Protestant/Evangelical Palestinian theologians.10 While the author, as part of the PhD project, has con- ducted interviews with all of the Palestinian theologians who are mentioned below, this article is a literature study and relies primarily on Palestinian theological publications, mainly, but not exclusively, those produced in English.

The Emergence of Palestinian Theology
Contextual theology can be defined as "the attempt to understand the Christian faith in terms of a particular context".11 Roman Catholic authors such as Stephen Bevans and Robert Schreiter argue that context is at the very centre of theology. Beside the two classical loci theologici of Scripture and tradition, contextual theology adds a third theological source, namely the locus of the human experience or the context. In his reflection on the birth of Palestinian theology, Father Rafiq Khoury (b. 1943), Palestinian theologian and vicar of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem, writes that Palestinian theology indeed developed from experience to reflection, and from general "Christian thought" to a well-formulated body of "contextual theology".12 Recent events in the second part of the 20th century, such as war, displacement, and colonial intervention, made Palestinian Christians start asking questions about their identity. In the words of Khoury: It started from the base, at the grassroots level, among those who were daily living through the tragedy. It started in the form of questions that these people began to ask themselves spontaneously: For some Palestinian theologians, the seed for theological reflection was sown during the Nakba ('catastrophe'), referring to the 'disaster of 1948' when more than 700,000 Arab refugees fled or were expelled from their villages. This had disruptive consequences on different levels of human existence, identity, and theology.14 The Melkite archbishop from Haifa, Joseph Raya (1916Raya ( -2005, was the first church official who spoke out for the Christian victims of the Nakba.15 He fought for the rights of the villagers of Iqrit and Kufr Baram, two Christian villages in Galilee in northern Israel, whose inhabitants were driven out in 1948, and which were finally bulldozed in 1951. Other theologians point to the Naksa ('setback'), the Six-Day War of 1967, as the decisive event that shaped the emergence of Palestinian contextual theology.16 Israel defeated a joint front of Arab nations and took over the Palestinian-populated West Bank (previously controlled by Jordan), the Golan Heights (previously controlled by Syria), and the Gaza-strip and Sinai Peninsula (previously controlled by Egypt). This defeat caused shock waves through the Arab world, but simultaneously gave rise to independent Palestinian thought, both politically and theologically. It also changed broader Arab patterns of thinking concerning religious concepts such as violence in the Old Testament, God's covenant with the Jewish people, and the identity of Jesus and his connection to Judaism. This was illustrated in the first major Arab theological document that dealt with the Arab-Israeli conflict after the Six-Day War: A theological perspective on the Arab-Israeli conflict, written by a group of Lebanese and Syrian theologians.17 Another important step on the road to

First Phase (1984-2000): Giving a Voice to Palestinian Christians
It was not until the 1980s that Palestinian contextual theology began to take its current shape. In 1984, Melkite Emeritus Archbishop Elias Chacour (b. 1939) published Blood Brothers: The Dramatic Story of a Palestinian Christian working for Peace in Israel, a memoir that can be conceived as the first contextual theological book by a Palestinian theologian.19 Chacour was a young priest in the time of Archbishop Raya and came from Kufr Baram, one of the Christian villages destroyed after the Nakba. Chacour produced a narrative theology; he wrote his own personal story of displacement and formulated a theology on the Palestinian connection to the land. Later, this genre was also used by other theologians like Naim Ateek, Alex Awad, Munther Isaac, and Mitri Raheb, whose works are either based on biographies or on anecdotes from their own lives.
A next milestone in the history of Palestinian contextual theology was the publication of Theology and the Local Church in the Holy Land in 1987, by the Al-Liqa ʾ ('Encounter') Center in Bethlehem, which a Melkite named Geries Khoury (1952Khoury ( -2016  Al-Liqa ʾ Center was established as a small initiative but quickly developed into one of the main institutes for local Palestinian theology. The foundational idea behind Al-Liqa ʾ was that religion in the Middle East stands for more than just piety and needs to be seen as a force influencing social and political movements. In the opinion of the founders, the church needs to understand her own identity, using the hermeneutics of contextual theology and ecumenical cooperation to formulate an answer to the question of Palestinian Christian identity. The 1987 document was designed to serve as a starting point for a local theological movement and was used at one of the first conferences Al-Liqa ʾ organised at Tantur, an international ecumenical institute in Jerusalem. The authors conclude: "… the task is to contribute, each within his specialization, to the building of the church and the serving of society."21 Another publication, called Al-Liqa ʾ Journal (in Arabic from 1985 onwards and in English since 1992), presents socially and politically motivated articles, written by Palestinian scholars from diverse backgrounds. Hence, Palestinian contextual theology emerged in the 1980s as a politically and socially committed enterprise. Interestingly, but not surprisingly, this runs parallel with the outbreak of the First Intifada ('Uprising') on 8th December 1987. This was a time in which the Palestinians were feeling tired, frustrated, and helpless after twenty years of occupation and felt discouraged about the political climate within both the Israeli government and the Palestinian leadership. This caused the Palestinian people to become more outspoken and seize the initiative by establishing new grassroots movements; the Intifadas can be understood as an answer of revolt, and Al-Liqa ʾ as an answer from theology. This development of a Palestinian theology was advanced because of the indigenization of religious leadership in the Catholic and Protestant denominations in the 1970s and 1980s. And thus, with the eruption of the First Intifada, the indigenous Arab leaders made their voices heard. Less than two months after the First Intifada, on 22nd of January, 1988, the Patriarchs and Heads of the Churches of Jerusalem issued their first of many joint statements against the Israeli occupation. These statements continue to be issued right up to the present day.22 A subsequent development in Palestinian contextual theology was the emergence of a Palestinian liberation theology. The Reverend Naim Ateek (b. 1937), an Anglican priest, has been seen as the father of Palestinian liberation theology. 21 Al In 1989 he published his book Justice, and Only Justice: A Palestinian Theology of Liberation, the first serious attempt of a Palestinian Christian to provide a counterargument to a (Christian) Zionist reading of the Bible.23 After the publication of his book, Ateek founded Sabeel ('the Way') Ecumenical Liberation Theology Center, which is currently located in Shuʿafat, a neighbourhood in East Jerusalem. Where Al-Liqa ʾ was essentially an encounter between local Palestinians focussing on ecumenical and interfaith dialogue, Sabeel (although initially addressing the local church) was internationally connected, and its leaders' writings were characterised by theological activism.
In 1990, Sabeel organized its first conference on Palestinian liberation theology at Tantur Ecumenical Institute. There were ten international participants from across the world, including the United States, Ireland, South Africa, The Philippines, Zimbabwe, and Sri Lanka, joined by around forty local participants.24 This was the beginning of a global movement of groups called Friends of Sabeel in several countries in North America and Europe. Nearly all Sabeel's material is written in English, which has aided Palestinian liberation theology to gain attention and support throughout the world. Palestinian liberation theology began as a response to Western Christian theologies about Israel. The movement could therefore be critiqued for not sufficiently reaching Palestinian laypeople. Ateek was, however, of significant importance for his own Arab church community. He served as Canon of the Anglican St. George Cathedral in Jerusalem from 1985 until 1997 and preached every Sunday during the time of the First Intifada. After each of those services, Ateek listened to the reflections of his congregation on the sermons and on the Gospel in relation to the political situation they were living in. These moments provided inspiration for his books on liberation theology.25 Another prominent theologian in this field is the Reverend Mitri Raheb (b. 1962), a Lutheran pastor who calls himself a contextual theologian rather than a liberation theologian-although his concerns are similar to Ateek's. In fact, some distinguish 'Palestinian liberation theology' (lahūt al-taḥrīr al-Filasṭīnī) from 'Palestinian contextual theology' (lahūt al-siyāqī al-Filasṭīnī),26 but this article considers liberation theology to be part of Palestinian contextual Ateek's theological activism, Raheb's work merges theology and public engagement, contributing not only to the development of Palestinian theology, but also to Palestinian society in general. We also declare that the Israeli occupation of Palestinian land is a sin against God and humanity because it deprives the Palestinians of their basic human rights, bestowed by God. It distorts the image of God in the Israeli who has become an occupier just as it distorts this image in the Palestinian living under occupation. We declare that any theology, Hence, just as the First Intifada functioned as a stimulus for Palestinian clergy and theologians to become more outspoken, the developments in the early years of the 21st century made Palestinian theology more localised. Currently, one can speak of a systematised body of Palestinian contextual works. Fourteen Palestinian theologians have published contextual theology books in English, Arabic or German; and this number is significantly higher if one counts Palestinian theologians who have contributed to the Al-Liqa ʾ Journal, those who have spoken at national or international conferences, or those who teach at local universities and seminaries.40 At the end of April 2017, the book Madkhal ilā al-lahūt al-Filasṭīnī (Introduction to Palestinian Theology) was launched.41 This book was edited by a Lutheran theologian, the Reverend Munther Isaac (b. 1979), and contains the first systematic overview of Palestinian theology, with articles from the main players in the field. The first edited volume of this sort in English was published in January 2019 under the title Christian Theology in the Palestinian Context, edited by Father Rafiq  The publication of these books clearly indicates that the field of Palestinian contextual theology-since its emergence around 35 years ago-is burgeoning, with participants from across the Christian spectrum.

2.2
Nevertheless, many of these developments have been overlooked in Western theological circles and also in the field of World Christianity, despite its attention to theological developments outside of Europe and North America. This is partly because the development of Arab contextual theology came later and was slower to develop than in some other regions of the world. The other reason for this lack of academic attention is the very different status of Christianity in the Middle East: in contrast to Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, Christianity in the Middle East is dwindling. Hence, the trajectory of Christianity in the Middle East does not fit the general assumption underlying the field of World Christianity that the number of Christians in the Global South is growing rapidly.43 40 These fourteen theologians include The Reverend Naim S. Ateek Palestinian theologians have been pioneers, playing an exemplary role in the emergence of a broader spectrum of Arab theology, and hence have made a significant contribution to Arab thought in general.44 Palestinian theology offers a deep reflection on the recent history of the Middle East-a history of political turmoil, conflict, human suffering, and an ongoing flow of refugees. Broadly speaking, there are currently four major themes in Palestinian theological works, most of which this article has already alluded to: 1) liberation, 2) reconciliation, 3) witness, and 4) ecumenical and interfaith dialogue. This final section provides an in-depth examination of these distinct, but interconnected themes. Many Palestinian contextual theologians reflect on all four themes, but have a particular emphasis. In addition, these themes carry a varying weight of importance dependent on the given situation at different periods of time. What unites all these theologians, though, is their theological engagement with their identity as Palestinian Christians, and their reflection on the social and political context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Liberation
One of the distinct strands in Palestinian contextual theology is liberation theology. Influenced by postcolonial theories, the liberation theme encompasses a broad spectrum of connected topics including biblical hermeneutics, modern Israel, the status of the Old Testament, the Exodus narrative, the covenant, election, the land, and Christian Zionism. This theme is found, for example, in the work of Munther Isaac, Yohanna Katanacho, and Mitri Raheb. Most prominently, Palestinian liberation theology is found in the writings of Naim Ateek, the author of Justice, and Only Justice: A Palestinian Theology of Liberation (1989) and founder of Sabeel Ecumenical Liberation Center. Ateek aims to find a new biblical hermeneutic that emphasises a universal, inclusive view of God, over against the restrictive, exclusive views of some Jews and certain Western Christian theologians. Palestinian liberation theology, as developed

Reconciliation
A second major theme in Palestinian theology is reconciliation. The narrative of liberation was often heard in the 1980s, 1990s, and at the beginning of the 2000s, the time of political tension and Intifadas. More recently, Palestinian theologians have begun to portray themselves as active reconcilers instead of critical liberationists. Concepts of reconciliation are found, for example, in the writings of Elias Chacour and Salim Munayer and in the work of two prominent women theologians, Rula Khoury Mansour and Jean Zaru.48 Salim Munayer (b. 1955) made reconciliation the main theme of his work and founded the organisation Musalaha ('Reconciliation') in Jerusalem, which aims to build bridges between different segments of the Israeli and Palestinian society according to reconciliation principles derived from the Bible. Instead of focussing on different ethnic and nationalistic identities, Musalaha's theological emphasis points to the biblical concept of new identity in Christ, making it possible for opposing people to meet and reconcile in this new identity. One could question, however, whether such a focus on reconciliation can be viewed separately from the concept of liberation. Ateek, for example, has argued that liberation and reconciliation are interconnected, but that liberation and justice are necessary before any form of reconciliation can be achieved.49

3.3
Witness The theme of 'witness,' the most widespread and popular theological concept among current Palestinian clergy, can be found in different sources, especially in the statements of the Heads of churches in Jerusalem. It is also apparent in the work of Patriarch Emeritus Michel Sabbah who has said that it is the vocation of Palestinian Christians to bear the witness of Jesus Christ "first of all, in the face of the holiness of this land, then in the face of the difficult birth of peace and justice in it, and in the face of the oppression and the violation of the dignity of the human person, which is being perpetrated here."50 Therefore, a Palestinian Christian theology of witness strives first of all for justice and then, in second place, for a Christian contribution to society. Bishop Emeritus Munib Younan (b. 1950) calls this a theology of martyria (Greek for 'witness') and focuses on the social role of Christianity. He describes witness as a creative diakonia, where the Christian faith functions as an inspiration to establish schools, universities, Bible translations, and ecumenical movements. 51 The concept of witness is, therefore, most apparent in the public role played by Christians in society. However, a theology of witness does not speak radical truths to long-standing injustices in the same way liberation and reconciliation theologies do.

3.4
Ecumenical and Interfaith Dialogue Fourthly, a recurring theme in Palestinian contextual works is ecumenical and interfaith dialogue. Organisations such as Al-Liqa ʾ, Sabeel, and Kairos Palestine are all ecumenical initiatives. The organisation Al-Liqa ʾ has organised yearly conferences for Christian-Muslim dialogue since 1983. This has long been a group for the Arab intelligentsia, who promote Palestinian nationalism, unity, and dialogue. Father Rafiq Khoury, who is also part of Al-Liqa ʾ, states that Christian-Muslim relations in Palestine are a special case.52 Palestine is situated at the crossroads of three continents (Asia, Africa, and Europe) and of three world religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam). Palestinian Christians have gone through an advanced stage of Arabisation, Khoury argues. In fact, he describes Palestine as "that part that Arabized the most".53 Furthermore, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict made Palestinian Christians and Muslims not suffer from each other, but with each other. One could also reference such Palestinian solidarity to explain the ecumenical attempts for church unity and national unity made by the Patriarchs and Heads of Christian communities in their joint statements concerning the Israeli occupation. The question remains, though: What will happen to this church unity and interreligious dialogue if group interests do not coincide any longer but oppose each other?

Some Remarks
Although this article has specifically focussed on texts written by Palestinian theologians and church leaders, there are parallel developments in popular religious expressions, such as pilgrimage and the veneration of saints. This has been highlighted in articles on the popular Palestinian Saint George veneration and on the way Palestinian Christians deal with the historicity of biblical places.54 Furthermore, Palestinian Christians are locally active in the sphere of civil society, education, health care, and the arts. 55 On the political level, Christians have a set number of seats in the Parliament of the Palestinian Authority. Several of the national political liberation movements, like the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and the Al-Ard ('the Land') movement, had Christian founders as well. There was also Christian participation in the Palestinian delegation in the 1990s peace process, with Anglican politician Dr Hanan Ashrawi (b. 1946).56 Palestinian contextual theology is therefore an exponent of a wider Palestinian Christian societal and political engagement.
While the spectrum of Palestinian contextual theology is broad and diverse, not all voices are equally represented. In Palestinian theology there is, for example, an underrepresentation of female voices, just as there are no Arab female church leaders in the Palestinian Territories. This does not mean that women have not played any role in this Christian revival. The three women Cedar Duaybis, Nora Carmi, and Jean Zaru were part of the group that helped establish Sabeel. Similarly, the Kairos Palestine Document has three women among its fifteen authors: Cedar Duaybis, Nora Kort, and Lucy Taljieh. This article also referred to Palestinian Evangelical theologian Rula Khoury Mansour, who recently published her first book-which may signify the beginning of a broader theological engagement of young female Palestinian theologians who are now graduate students. Neither should one underestimate the role of the Rahbāt al-Wardiyye ('Rosary Sisters'), founded by Palestinian nun Maria-Alphonsine Danil Ghattas (1843-1927) on 24th July, 1880. This Arab Roman-Catholic order runs churches, schools, and hospitals in the Palestinian Territories, Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, Egypt, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates.
Another group that is generally underrepresented in the discussion of Palestinian theology are the Eastern Orthodox Christians, who in fact are the largest community among Palestinian Christians. Palestinian theologians from the Western school of theology-Roman Catholics, mainline Protestants, and Evangelicals-have played the major role in the formation of Palestinian contextual theology. The most plausible explanation for their dominant role is their direct engagement with European and American Christian Zionist concepts of eschatology, the land, and the covenant. It was their struggle with these questions which resulted in the emergence of a body of Palestinian contextual theology. This article has described how Palestinian theology and Christianity have developed since the 1970s. It has reviewed the historical developments of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s that made Palestinian clergy and theologians more outspoken. Developments such as the First Intifada and the indigenization of religious leadership have encouraged Palestinian Christian leaders to speak out. Since the turn of the millennium, Palestinian theology has become more localised, by not prioritising international Christian connections but by emphasising the importance of local theological discussion. Earlier theological initiatives such as the Assembly of Catholic Ordinaries of the Holy Land, the joint statements of Patriarchs and Heads of Christian communities of Jerusalem, the local theology of the Al-Liqa ʾ Center in Bethlehem, and the liberation theology of Sabeel Center in Jerusalem, became enriched by newer theological streams such as Palestinian Kairos theology and Palestinian Evangelical theology. It is now possible to speak of a systematised body of Palestinian theology containing theological reflection on the concepts of liberation, reconciliation, witness, interreligious dialogue, and ecumenism. Throughout this article the importance of 'context' has been apparent. There are two different ways in which context has influenced Palestinian theology. A theology of liberation is based on a 'context of co-resistance' , found in places such as Jerusalem, where Christians live together with Muslims against the Israeli occupier. In contrast, the theology focussing on reconciliation and witness leans more towards a 'context of co-existence': living peacefully together with the other, with Jews and with Muslims.
Beyond a select few like Naim Ateek and Mitri Raheb, Palestinian theologians-and Middle Eastern theologians in general-have gained little influence in Western theological scholarship or in the field of World Christianity. Misunderstanding in the West, ongoing emigration, and growing sectarianism have minimized the voices and public engagement of Palestinian Christians. As a result, Christians in the region are grouping together to survive and prioritise the needs of their own community. Yet, the challenges Palestinian Christians face have enhanced their sensitivity to the prophetic vocation of their faith and paved the way for theologians to become creative and for citizens to become socially committed.
The examples of Palestinian theologians mentioned in this article indicate that hope for the future is not lost. Palestinian theologians are currently localising the theological discourse even further by publishing more work in Arabic and working together with Arab theologians from other parts of the Middle East. We might even see another revival of Palestinian Christianity if those