Wood Identification of Ancient Temple Structures in Ladakh, Located in the Western Himalayas

Microscopic wood identifications were performed on five Buddhist temple structures, three vernacular houses, two stupas, and two holy trees located in Ladakh, a region in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir in the Western Himalayas. Leh is Ladakh’s capital and is located along the Indus River, the backbone of Ladakh. The vernacular buildings, stupa, and holy trees are located in Leh. Ladakh is a high - altitude desert with extremely scarce vegetation. Natural vegetation occurs mostly along the watercourses. The temples are located in villages along the upper Indus river valley, or along confluent rivers. From the 110 wood samples, 4 wood species were identified: poplar, willow, juniper, and pine. Building type, local availability, specific physical and mechanical properties of the wood species, and religious considerations were apparently the lead-ing criteria for timber selection.

1 Introduction samples were soaked in water for two days for softening. For the preparation of the microscopic slides, thin hand sections were taken in transverse, radial, and tangential directions (15-25 µm thick) by means of a double-edged razor blade.
Gum-chloral was used as a slide-mounting medium. The slides were studied under an optical microscope (Olympus model BX51, Japan) with a magnification of 40-400× and photos were taken with a digital camera, (Olympus model DP73, Japan) (see also Mertz et al. 2014). The results are listed in the Appendix at the end of the paper. The various traditional buildings and temples are described below, along with an idea of how people live in and cherish traditional buildings.

Roke Bano House (Figs 3 and 4) -Early 1900s
This house, restored by the THF, belongs to the Bano family, a Muslim family. They moved to a larger house in a village near Choglamsar, a Tibetan settlement 7 km from Leh. The family, including five children and a 75-year-old mother, still cherish their old family house. They appreciate the old beams that are common in all of the traditional houses. This kind of social connection and cooperation is hardly felt in newly constructed houses. Over the last five years, more and more concrete houses have appeared in Leh Old Town. The mother, Roquia Bano, after whom the house was named, said that "In the past, Muslims figure 3 Roke Bano House dating from the early nineteenth century. The house belongs to a Muslim family but is rented to the THF staff. and Buddhists had good relationships in the Old Town, living together in peace and harmony." The Roke Bano House itself shares a common wall with the White Maitreya temple. On the ground floor, the family used to store wood and cattle dung in the winter; in the old days, they kept camels. At present, the THF rents the flat roof floor for its staff members (Chan 2010).

2.2
Sofi House -Early 1900s (Fig. 5) The Sofi House is located next to the Stagopilog Stupa Gate.
The wooden doors and benches at the main entrance porch, as well as the hanging wooden balconies, are signatures of Kashmir-style houses. It is home to four families, all related. The house is warm in winter and cool in summer. The Sofi family, originally from Srinagar in Kashmir, came to trade in Ladakh (Chan 2010). figure 4 Main pillar (poplar wood) and a bracket made of willow. The purlin is made of poplar. The rafters and ceiling-covering sticks (called "talu") are made of willow. The sticks are cut from poles of pollarded willows. Continuous lopping of the top of a tree encourages fresh growth into new shoots producing poles (Corkhill 1979).

Mertz
International Journal of Wood Culture 1 (2021) 1-25 The Sofi House, dating from the early nineteenth century, shows the beautifully carved wooden doors and balconies typical of a Kashmir-style house. The rafters, beams, and pillars are made of poplar.

2.4
Lakruk House -Early 1700s (Fig. 7) This house belongs to a Buddhist family. A 70-year-old Ladakhi nun, Ani-le Thupstan Choedon, lives alone in the family's Lakruk house, which overlooks the old town. The house was named after one of the great-grandfathers of the family. A prominent Buddhist family, they have hosted many rimpoches (spiritual leaders).
The Leh Old Town Initiative and THF are renting the top floor of the Lakruk House for their office and residential use. During the day, Ani-le sometimes climbs the narrow stairs up to the terrace, where she can be with the staff and volunteers (Chan 2010).

2.5
West Stupa Gate (Fig. 8) This is a small gate above a small pathway next to the Central Asian Museum.

2.6
Two Holy Trees (Sikh Trees) Next to the Central Asian Museum (Fig. 9) These two impressive trees are landmarks of Leh Old Town. Many myths are told about them. One signboard says the following about the dead tree: figure 7 Interior of the Lakruk House dating from the early 1700s. It belongs to a Buddhist family. The whole inner structure appears to be made from poplar, with the exception of the ceiling sticks ("talu") made from willow. The 'Sacred Tree' is revered by the local people of the Ladakh region, as the great prophet Rimpoche Lama visited this place in the year 1517. Master, or Guru, Ji put down his walking stick at this place. With the passage of time, a huge tree grew from the stick in the desert area of Ladakh, where there were no trees at that time. For five hundred years, this sacred tree has been well known among all the people, including our Buddhist and Muslim brethren, both for its sacredness and Guru Ji's most memorable journey to spread the message of truth, peace and love there.
2.6.1 Living Tree "The real aim of Guru Ji was to establish greenery in an arid climate, and this tree also is there to remind us to take care of the environment."

2.7
Kanji Village: Tsuglag-khang Temple -3850 m (Fig. 10) The Tsuglag-khang Temple is approximately 700 years old and roughly contemporary with the temple of Wanla village (next entry). It dates from a period when Kanji was part of a local kingdom ruled from Wanla.
The temple is a one-room structure built of river stones, earth, and wooden beams. The interior is decorated with three larger-than-life-sized clay sculptures. In the middle is the four-armed Shadakshari Lokeshvara, a popular form of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, flanked by the Medicine Buddha (Bhaisajyaguru) and the green form of the goddess Tara. Its walls are covered with paintings, including six mandalas. Although the exact identification of these is not yet possible, the mandalas on the left-side wall are dedicated to the main Bodhisattva Vajrasattva and the Buddha of long life Amitayus, and those on the right-side wall to the Buddha Shakyamuni and Vairochana. On the entrance wall, the left mandala is damaged to the extent that it must be considered unidentifiable. The one to the right is dedicated to the fierce deity Vajrapani. Due to the quality of the interior decoration and its fragile state of preservation, this temple was selected by the Achi Association in 1999 as its first monument conservation project. The conservation problems mainly resulted from an overload of the roof structure accumulated over centuries of casual repairs. The heavy load caused instability and cracks in the walls and resulted in an outward drift and partial detachment of the east wall; in consequence, water penetration through the roof soiled and partly destroyed the precious paintings.

Conservation and Restoration Measures
After more detailed survey work on the building structure and the interior paintings in 2000, the stabilization and restoration of the temple structure were executed in the following years. The underpinning of the foundation and reconstruction of the damaged roof and tie beams was stabilizing the building figure 10 The Tsuglag-khang Temple dating from 1300 is located in Kanji Village on the Kong Tokpo River, a confluent of the Indus River. It is made of juniper.

Mertz
International Journal of Wood Culture 1 (2021) 1-25 and preventing further damage to the interior decoration. Parallel to this, the Achi Association carried out conservation of the paintings, consisting of their cleaning and stabilization and the filling of cracks. The work was completed in 2008. Currently, the sculptures are undergoing conservation work and the missing areas of the paintings are being reconstructed. The final aim is to do equal justice to both, the religious utilization of the temple, and to the art-historical importance of the paintings and sculptures. Their cautiousness in the painting and reconstruction arose from the desire to restore the former unity of the interior decoration, and to render its religious meaning clear. All of the repainted and reconstructed sections are easily distinguishable from the originals, when closely observed.
The practical conservation efforts on the temple go together with the commitment to assisting the village community in maintenance strategies and capacity building in preventive conservation. In cooperation with the Achi Association, the University of Udine (Italy) is preparing a conservation manual on the historic Kanji village (ACHI Association).

2.8
Wanla Village: Chuchig-zhal Temple -3200 m asl (Fig. 11) The temple of the Eleven-headed Avalokiteshvara (Chuchig-zhal) was built about 700 years ago within the hilltop fortress of a local ruler, Bhag-dar-skyab. It is said to be a copy of the Sumtsek ("three-storied building") at Alchi, the only other temple of this type in Ladakh. Commonly referred to by the name of the main deity in its southwestern niche, in the inscription on its southeastern wall it is called Tashi Sumtsek ("The Auspicious Three-storied"). The temple was built on a mandala plan, with an eastern entrance porch and three niches containing colossal standing statues of Maitreya, Avalokiteshvara, and Shakyamuni. The central space rises through two stories into the rooftop lantern. The internal walls on all levels are completely covered with wall-paintings. Carved and painted wooden pillars, capitals, and beams complete the décor of the porch and interior.

2.8.1
The Need to Intervene Structural investigations of the temple revealed that the roof system had a thickness of up to 110 cm and that the layer-wise increase of the roof structure was the result of maintenance work over the centuries. These excessive roof loads affected the stability of the temple and caused cracks and detachment of the decorated wall plaster in the interior. According to witnesses, some of these cracks developed only over the last 20 years. The main beam at the gallery level is broken on one side, and is propped up from below by a temporary post. Further damage to the plaster and paintings was caused by a defective rainwater spout, which led to water penetrating the wall. All of the paintings were covered with the greasy lampblack of the countless butter-lamps that were burned in the temple during the centuries. The paintings on the ground floor became nearly invisible.

2.8.2
Conservation Measures Temporary supports were erected in the left-hand-side apse in 1999, followed by an investigation of the wall foundations down to the rock base, and consolidation of the masonry below ground level. Before the works on the roof structure started, the detached and finely painted plaster on the wall above the broken main beam had to be secured in those places that were in immediate danger. In 2006, measures to diminish the roof load were begun, and in 2008 the structural reinforcement was carried out. Since 2003, working hand in hand with the architects, the conservators have investigated, consolidated, and cleaned the interior wall paintings.

2.8.3
Renovation of the Roof Over the centuries, several attempts were made to seal the roof against water with the aid of new, additional layers of loam. This led to massive overloading of the structure that is evidenced by the wide cracks in the masonry.

Mertz
International Journal of Wood Culture 1 (2021) 1-25 In 2005, the thickness of the roof at the front was reduced by 43 cm and at the same time a drain was installed on two sides.
The relief offered by the works performed since 2005 led to a relief of more than 28 tons on an area of 32 m2. The latest roof layer, with a thickness of 10-18 cm, was installed in two layers, using an improved, traditional technique: markalak, loam soil, fluvial sand, horse dung, and straw. In the particularly critical zone of the transition to the top ceiling (parapet zone), a fiberglassreinforced strip of plastic was installed to protect the painted areas by preventing "rivulets" on the inside. In 2008, the roof surface above the main recess was refurbished. The existing roof of 1 m thickness was removed, and a new lightweight aluminum construction was installed. These beams are supporting the new external roof independent from the inner roof. The original inner ceiling was suspended from spring-born bars (ACHI Association).

2.9
Alchi Village: Alchi Monastery -3060 m asl 2.9.1 Lotsawa Lhakhang -11-12th Century On the central wall of the temple, there is a presentation of Shakyamuni, surrounded by the translator Rinchen Sangpo at his left and the four-armed bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara on his right. On the left wall, next to the Buddha Amitabha, there is a mandala of Avalokiteshvara on his left and a mandala of Amitayus on his right. A painting of Mahakala is situated above the entrance door. On the right wall, one can find in the center a representation of Akshobhya; on its right, there is a mandala of himself, and on its left, a heavily deteriorated mandala (Gnoud et al. 2011).
The temple's timber structure is made of poplar, except for one carved Lion-bracket that is made from a conifer, probably juniper.

2.9.2
Tsa Tsa Puri (Three Separate Rooms, One Two-Storied, the Others One-Storied) -ca. 15th Century (Fig. 12) On the hill dominating Alchi are two temples that are guarded by the monks of Rizong. These temples called Tsa Tsa Puri, were named by the Lunpo of Alchi by the name of Tugdje Chenpo, "the great compassionate," which means Avalokiteshvara. The paintings that decorate these buildings are of a very particular style: the only style they can be compared with are those of the principal cave of Saspol. It is supposed that they date from the fifteenth century.

Mertz
International Journal of Wood Culture 1 (2021) 1-25 with our arrival. First, the responsible priest performed a purification ritual. Then, the THF team started consolidating the wall paintings while the artisans, carpenters, and masons prepared wooden boards for new doors, and soil for plastering. During these activities, the wood sampling was performed.

Results
From 111  of Juniperus sp. Juniper is more durable than poplar and was therefore used for the flooring panels, which are prone to abrasions.
We were very suspenseful about the results on the two sacred trees: The old dead tree that was said to have grown from a walking stick, brought from far away by the holy Rimpoche Lama, a great prophet, in the year 1517, was a poplar.
The living tree was planted after a wish by this holy man to plant "greenery" for a "clean green environment." This tree was also a poplar tree.
The most probable candidate for the poplar wood is Populus euphratica, also called the Indian poplar. The late Gamble of the Indian Forest Department, Dehradun, mentioned the so-called Bahan poplar distributed in the Upper Valley of the Indus: "this being, possibly, the original home" (Gamble 1972, p. 691).
The wood of Salix sp. was used for specific purposes, such as the ceilingcovering sticks called "taru," in all of the investigated buildings. In some cases, willow was used instead of poplar, like in the Roke Bano House in Leh, in the Stupa Gates in Leh, and for the front porch of the temple in Wanla village, recently restored by the Swiss ACHI Association.
The temple in Kanji village (3,850 m), located along the Kong Tokpo river (a confluent stream of the Indus river), is made of Juniperus sp. As this wood is very hard, it was also used for the flooring boards in room 2 of the Tsa Tsa Puri of Alchi Monastery, while the rest of the temple is made of Populus sp.
Finally, a piece of juniper, an incense wood used by locals in Leh, was also identified, so we could confirm its local use as incense for purifying living spaces.
The main wood of the Chuchig-zhal temple of Wanla village (3,200 m) is a Pinus species with smooth ray tracheids. Its cell walls are thin, with no ornamentations. It belongs to the group of "soft pines", scientifically belonging to the subgenus Haploxylon. As Pearson and Brown (1932) explain, of the five pine species indigenous to India, only one belongs to the subgenus Haploxylon, which is a five-needle pine, while all others belong to the subgenus Diploxylon, which are two-needle pines, with thick dentate-shaped ray tracheids. Therefore, it is possible to assume that the timber of that temple is made of Pinus wallichiana (syn. Pinus excelsa). Five-needle pines usually grow straighter than two-needle pines and are easier to work with.
As for the samples of the archaeologist Quentin Devers, sample no. 1 from a lintel of the entrance gate of Shey City was Populus sp. and sample no. 2 was a liana or vine.

Conclusions
The wood identifications of the temple structures showed a restricted number of wood species, compared with the temples identified in Sikkim of the Eastern Himalayas. This becomes understandable, when comparing altitude and climate. The temples in Sikkim are located at an altitude of 1400-2800 m, whereas those of Ladakh range between 3000-4000 m. More important is the climate, with an annual rainfall of 2700-3200 mm in Sikkim, with a heavy monsoon between June and September, whereas Ladakh, which is a cold desert area, has only 102 mm of annual rainfall (Leh) (Wikipedia). The forests of Sikkim are much more species-rich than those of the Ladakh region.
As for the criteria of wood selection, the choice was limited to the four timber tree species poplar, willow, five-needle pine, and juniper.
Another criterion, that of the sacredness of a tree, could be mentioned here. The Tsuglag-khang Temple of Kanji Village was made from juniper. This timber is considered a purifying wood, as it is used as incense for purification.
As a final remark, it is important to note that a great number of the samples showed that the wood was deteriorated. The deteriorated or desiccated poplar showed crystal-like inclusions under the microscope (Fig. 15). It is highly possible that the extremely desiccated wood led to the replacement of the wood structure by silica, or by calcium carbonate (Cartwright 2015). The more advanced the desiccation, the greater the number of crystals. Wood identification was possible because of the quantity of material available and because comparisons with other samples were possible.