An Analysis of the Leg and Foot Morphology of Chairs from the Ming and Qing Dynasties

This study analyzed the morphology of the legs and feet of chairs from the Ming and Qing Dynasties using statistic s, and the characteristics were presented in a data-based mod e. With furniture samples collected from museums as the research objec t, the performances of chair legs and feet from different periods were analyzed using cross - analysis and chi-square tests in SPSS 22.0 to find out if statistically significant differences existe d. The results show no statistical difference in the morphology of legs and feet of side chairs and armchairs with curved rest from different periods, while significant statistical differences exist in the morphology of the legs and feet of arm-chairs from the Ming and Qing Dynastie s. The results can help people to have a deeper understanding of the legs and feet of chairs from the Ming and Qing Dynasties on a rational cognition level and provide new ideas for the inheritance and innovation of such furniture in modern time s.


Introduction
The legs and feet are important structural components of a chair as they integrate functionality and decoration.First, they play a supporting and connecting role, which creates a certain height difference between the seat surface of the chair and the ground it touches in order to perform the basic receiving function of the chair (Xu 2017).Second, the artistic features of the linear performance of the legs and feet are important components of decorative chairs.Domestic scholars have seldom systematically analyzed the leg and foot morphology of chairs from the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and existing research mostly focuses on leg and foot shape performance and proportion coordination.Research has shown that plank feet, tarsal feet, standing legs, pedestals, doors, and clay supports are the most basic leg and foot forms of ancient Chinese wood furniture.During different historical periods, the legs and feet of furniture had corresponding forms (Li 2008).The degree of bending the legs and feet in Ming furniture follows a certain law of transformation (Li & Li 2018).The horse-hoof feet of Ming-style furniture have a bionic design, which manifests the implicit beauty of Chinese aesthetics (Zhang 2020).The legs and feet of Ming-style furniture are important components that integrate functionality and decoration, influencing their inheritance and development in modern times (Niu & Zhao 2022).Most of these studies contain general descriptions of the legs and feet of chairs from the Ming and Qing Dynasties but lack staging and classification discussions on their morphology.Therefore, we used SPSS to analyze the differences in the morphology of different types of legs and feet of chairs from the Ming and Qing Dynasties and objectively expounded on the characteristics of their differences.

Sample Collection and Preparation
The research object of this study was precisely-dated chairs from the Ming and Qing Dynasties.The furniture samples, that is, 205 pieces of chairs from the Ming and Qing Dynasties, were collected from museums.Among these, 103 and 102 pieces of furniture, were from the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Downloaded from Brill.com 01/25/2024 10:18:29PM via Open Access.This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license.https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/respectively, were classified into three types: side chairs, armchairs, and armchairs with curved rests.Considering the legs and feet as the statistical units, the abovementioned samples were disassembled and classified according to the number of cross-sections, line performance, external contour, and decorative performance.The legs and feet are primarily divided into round and square feet in terms of their cross-sections.Line performance can be divided into linear, curved, and curved-straight combination types.External contour performance is divided into straight-leg straight feet, straight-leg horse-hoof feet, convex apron and bulging legs ending in horse-hoof feet, cabriole legs, and curved-straight combination types.Decorative performance is primarily divided into light-and non-light element types.In a follow-up study, it will be divided into these parts for comparative analysis.
The surface and line, which are an important part of the overall shape of furniture, are collectively referred to as "molding" in modern architectural terms and are primarily used on the legs and feet of furniture (Wang 2008).According to the shape of the molding, the legs and feet of chairs from the Ming and Qing Dynasties can be divided into two forms: round and square feet.Based on the line performance of the legs and feet, they can be divided into linear, curved, and curved-straight combination types.
The side profiles of the straight legs and feet are also a straight line.According to their external form, they can be divided into two categories: straight-leg straight feet and straight-leg horse-hoof feet.The first one can be divided into straight-leg square feet (as shown in Fig. 1) and straight-leg round feet (as shown in Fig. 2), according to the shape of the molding.The common form of straight-leg horse-hoof feet (as shown in Table 1) is below the seat surface or waist; the legs are straight and perpendicular to the ground, turn inward from the lower end, and have inward-curving horse-hoof feet.The corner shape of the foot end has two types: right and round angles.Generally, patterns are carved and decorated on the surfaces of the feet.The inward-curving horse-hoof feet enrich the shape of the lower part of the chair and, simultaneously, increase the contact area between the feet and the ground, increase friction, and make the overall frame of the chair more stable.The side profiles of curved legs and feet are also curved, with various forms and detailed changes.Common forms are convex aprons and bulging legs ending in horse-hoof feet and cabriole legs.Convex apron and bulging legs ending in a horse-hoof foot protrude outward in an arc shape (as shown in Table 1); the external contour is similar to the outer edge of the drum and, thus, is called a "bulging leg."The tooth bulges outward with the arch shoulder, which is called the "outward-curving apron."The feet are in the shape of an inward-curving horse-hoof, and together with the bulging leg, it is known as a "convex apron and bulging legs ending in horse-hoof feet."Cabriole legs show an S-shaped curve when viewed from the side (as shown in Table 1); the ends of the feet are inverted, and the bottom is covered with mud.Patterns are often carved on top of the feet, and their shape performance is high.The side profile of the curved-straight combination of legs and feet is a straight line with a curve (as shown in Table 1).The common forms begin with a straight line and then, gradually transition to a curved form in the middle; conversely, they may curve first and, then, connect with the straight line in the middle.The ends of the curved-straight combination of legs and feet are generally bent outward in a certain arc and decorated with pattern carving.The decorative performance of legs and feet of chairs from the Ming and Qing Dynasties is divided into lightand non-light element types.The light-element legs do not have any carving decoration, highlighting only the texture of the wood itself.Non-light element legs are often supplemented with patterned carving decorations to enhance the sense of shape and volume of the legs and feet.

2.2
Research Methods 2.2.1 SPSS SPSS is a data processing software package that uses mathematical models to analyze data, explore their laws, and discover their internal relationships International Journal of Wood Culture (2023) 1-16 (Ni 2010).The sample materials belong to a qualitative classification dataset; thus, they can be analyzed using statistical methods (Gao et al. 2018).

2.2.2
Multiple-Response Analysis Multiple-response analysis is also called multiple-choice question-response analysis.The data input method is a dichotomy, which defines and sets the edited data and conducts frequency and cross-analyses.This study uses this method to quantify and assign the qualitative data of the leg and foot morphology, enter it into an Excel table in the form of numbers 0 and 1, and then import the quantified data into SPSS for correlation analysis.

2.2.3
Chi-Square Test The chi-square test is a hypothesis test method widely used to detect whether a variable (or characteristic) has a significant relationship with a dependent variable.In this study, Pearson's chi-square test and Fisher's exact probability method were used to determine whether significant statistical differences existed in the morphology of the legs and feet of various types of chairs in  Culture (2023) 1-16 different periods.The test result P<0.05 indicated that a statistically significant difference existed among the analyzed elements but not vice versa.

3
Results and Discussion

General Situation of the Database of the Leg and Foot Morphology of Chairs from Ming and Qing Dynasties
The 205 pieces of chair samples collected from museums were classified according to the morphological characteristics of the legs and feet analyzed above and compared and analyzed with regards to the two different periods, that is, the Ming and Qing Dynasties.The relevant statistical data are presented in Tables 2 and 3.During the Qing Dynasty, the proportion of square legs and feet in side chairs and armchairs was slightly higher than that of round legs and feet.This was different from the Ming Dynasty.Compared with round feet, the shape of square feet is more varied.Moldings are often treated with them, and this rich and diverse form of change is in line with the Qing Dynasty's aesthetic preference.In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the legs and feet of armchairs with curved rests were primarily round, forming a sense of balance and harmony with the arc-shaped chair ring in the upper half.
Side chairs and armchairs during the Qing Dynasty included curved and curved-straight combinations of legs and feet.Compared to the single linear form of the legs and feet in the Ming Dynasty, the visual effect is more changeable.The common forms are the convex apron and bulging legs ending in horse-hoof feet and cabriole legs, respectively.While the shapes of the legs and feet are rich in detail, the chair becomes full of layers.The legs and feet of armchairs with curved rests were primarily linear in the Ming and Qing Dynasties; however, innovations were made on this basis.Depending on the specific performance of the legs and feet, they are often divided into straight legs, straight feet, and straight-leg horse-hoof feet.
Craftsmen of the Ming and Qing Dynasties carried out corresponding innovations in linear, curved, and curved-straight combinations of legs and feet.Based on the external contour, they are often divided into straight legs and feet, straight legs and horse-hoof feet, convex apron and bulging legs ending in horse-hoof feet, cabriole legs, and curved-straight combination of legs and feet.These forms of the legs and feet make the overall visual presentation of the chair richer, more changeable, and more dynamic.During the Ming Dynasty, side chairs were dominated by straight legs with straight feet.During the Qing Dynasty, straight legs, horse-hoof feet, and straight-curved combination types were added but in small numbers.During the Ming Dynasty, the straight-leg straight feet type was used in a heavier proportion of armchairs.During the Qing Dynasty, the styles of straight legs and horse-hoof feet gradually increased, and convex aprons and bulging legs ending in horse-hoof feet, cabriole legs, and curved-straight combinations of legs and feet were also used in armchairs.Armchairs with curved rests are primarily composed of straight legs and feet, and their overall shape is simple and generous.
During the Qing Dynasty, the number of non-light element legs and feet increased, and most of the decorative elements appeared on the straight legs and horse-hoof feet and curved-straight combinations of legs and feet.Craftsmen often carved patterns at the ends of the horse-hoof feet.Compared to the Qing Dynasty, the number of non-light element legs and feet of armchairs increased greatly, which corresponded to an increase in the number of horse-hoof legs, convex aprons, and bulging legs ending in horse-hoof feet and cabriole legs.The convex apron and bulging legs ending in horse-hoof feet are often decorated with patterns at the feet end, while the cabriole legs are often decorated at the feet end and the upper part of the feet; carving was primarily used as the decorative method.A small number of delicate decorative patterns on the legs and feet echoed the overall shape of the chairs in the Qing Dynasty, resulting in a sense of contrast and harmony.

Analysis of the Leg and Foot Morphology Preference Difference of Chairs in the Ming and Qing Dynasties using SPSS
The cross-sectional performance, line performance, external contour, and decorative performance of the legs and feet are all single options that can be directly analyzed using a cross-table chi-square test descriptive analysis.When the number of samples was greater than 40, and the frequency of a theoretical number of <5 was less than 20%, the Pearson Chi-square test was used.When the frequency of a theoretical number <5 was more than 20%, the Fisher exact probability method was used.When the P-value is less than 0.05, a significant statistical difference exists between the leg and foot morphologies of chairs from the Ming and Qing Dynasties but not vice versa.Tables 4-6 present the cross-table and chi-square test results of the leg and foot morphology analysis of side chairs, armchairs, and armchairs with curved rests, respectively.
Table 4 shows the cross-table and chi-square test results of the leg and foot morphology analyses of side chairs.The chi-square values of the legs and    feet of the armchairs in the cross-sectional performance, line performance, external contour, and decorative performance were 0.205, 0.114, 1.52 and 1.141, respectively, and the corresponding P-values were 0.434, 0.52, 0.686 and 0.26, respectively, all of which were greater than 0.05.No statistical difference exists in the morphological performance of the legs and feet of the armchairs in different periods.In other words, no difference existed in the morphological performance of the legs and feet of the side chairs in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.The cross-sectional performance, line performance, external contour, and decorative performance of the legs and feet appeared in the side chairs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in the same frequency.According to the morphological characteristics and application frequency distribution of legs and feet shown in Table 4, the frequency of the legs and feet of side chairs in the Ming Dynasty in terms of cross-sectional performance from high to low is as follows: round and square feet at 55.6 and 44.4%, respectively.Line performance was 100% linear.On the external contour performance, straight legs and straight feet are 100%.On the decorative performance, the light element type is 100%.With regards to the Qing Dynasty, the frequency of the legs and feet of the side chairs in terms of cross-sectional performance was from high to low: square and round feet at 62.5 and 37.5%, respectively.On the line performance, linear is at 87.5% and curved-straight combination type is at 12.5%.On the external contour performance, the straight-leg straight feet type is at 81.3%, the curved-straight combination type is at 12.4%, and the straight legs and horse-hoof feet are at 6.3%.On the decorative performance, the lightand non-light element types are at 75% and 25%, respectively.Therefore, linear, straight-leg straight feet, and light-element legs and feet all appeared with the highest frequency in side chairs from the Ming and Qing Dynasties.
Table 5 shows the cross-table and chi-square test results of the leg and foot morphology analysis of armchairs.The chi-square values of the legs and feet of the armchairs in the cross-sectional performance, line performance, external contour, and decorative performance were 32.873, 17.158, 39.834 and 23.349, respectively, and the corresponding significant P-values were all 0, that is, less than 0.05.Differences existed in the morphological performance of the legs and feet of the armchairs at different periods.That is, significant statistical differences existed in the cross-sectional performance, line performance, external contour, and decorative performance of the armchairs from the Ming and Qing Dynasties.
According to the morphological characteristics and the application frequency distribution of legs and feet shown in Table 5, the frequency of the legs and feet of armchairs in the Ming Dynasty in terms of cross-sectional performance from high to low is as follows: round and square feet at 81.9 and 18.1%, respectively.Line performance is 100% linear.Regarding the external contour performance, the straight-leg straight feet type accounted for 97.2%, and straight legs and horse-hoof feet accounted for 2.8%.In terms of decorative performance, the light-and non-light element types were at 95.8 and 4.2%, respectively.In the Qing Dynasty, the frequencies of the legs and feet of armchairs in cross-sections from high to low are as follows: square and round feet at 64.9 and 35.1%, respectively.The line performance was linear at 79.7%, the curved type at 12.2%, and the curved-straight combination type at 8.1%.Regarding the external contour performance, the straight-leg straight feet type accounted for 52.7%, the straight legs and horse-hoof feet accounted for 33.8%, the cabriole leg and the curved-straight combination types accounted for 5.4%, and the convex apron and bulging legs ending in horse-hoof feet accounted for 2.7%.The decorative performance was 63.5 and 36.5% for the light and non-light element types, respectively.In summary, straight legs, straight-leg straight feet, and light-element legs and feet are the highest frequencies in armchairs from the Ming and Qing Dynasties.Regarding the cross-sectional performance of the legs and feet, the frequency of round feet in the armchairs of the Ming Dynasty was the highest, and the frequency of square feet in the armchairs of the Qing Dynasty was the highest.
Table 6 shows the cross-table and chi-square test results of the leg and foot morphology analysis of armchairs with curved rests.According to the analysis, the chi-square values of the legs and feet of the armchairs with the curved rest of the cross-sectional performance, line performance, external contour, and decorative performance are 0, 0, 2.18 and 0, respectively, and the corresponding P-values are 0.686, 1, 0.603 and 1, all of which are greater than 0.05.No statistical difference exists in the morphology of the legs and feet of the armchairs with curved rests from different periods.That is, no difference exists in the morphological performance of the legs and feet of the armchairs with curved rests in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.The cross-sectional performance, line performance, external contour, and decorative performance of legs and feet appear in the armchairs with curved rests from the Ming and Qing Dynasties with the same frequency.
According to the morphological characteristics and the application frequency distribution of legs and feet shown in Table 6, the frequency of the legs and feet of armchairs with curved rests in the Ming Dynasty in terms of cross-sectional performance from high to low is as follows: round and square

FIGURE 1
FIGURE 1 Round feet: the sectional shape of the round legs and feet Downloaded from Brill.com 01/25/2024 10:18:29PM via Open Access.This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license.https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/An Analysis of the Leg and Foot Morphology International Journal of Wood Culture (2023) 1-16 Downloaded from Brill.com 01/25/2024 10:18:29PM via Open Access.This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license.https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/International Journal of Wood Culture (2023) 1-16 Downloaded from Brill.com 01/25/2024 10:18:29PM via Open Access.This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license.https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

TABLE 1 Legs
and feet modeling diagrams Picture Description Straight legs round feet Straight legs square feet Straight legs horse-hoof feet Picture Description Convex apron and bulging legs ending in a horse-hoof feet Cabriole legs Curved straight combination legs Downloaded from Brill.com 01/25/2024 10:18:29PM via Open Access.This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license.https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/6 Zhang and Yuan International Journal of Wood

TABLE 2
The leg and foot morphology of chairs from the Ming Dynasty Downloaded from Brill.com 01/25/2024 10:18:29PM via Open Access.This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license.https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/An Analysis of the Leg and Foot Morphology International Journal of Wood Culture (2023) 1-16

TABLE 3
The leg and foot morphology of chairs from the Qing Dynasty Downloaded from Brill.com 01/25/2024 10:18:29PM via Open Access.This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license.https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

TABLE 4
Cross-table and Chi-square test results of the leg and foot morphology analysis of side chairs Downloaded from Brill.com 01/25/2024 10:18:29PM via Open Access.This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license.https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/Zhang and Yuan International Journal of Wood Culture (2023) 1-16

TABLE 5
Cross-table and Chi-square test results of the leg and foot morphology analysis of armchairs

TABLE 4
Cross-table and Chi-square test results (cont.)An Analysis of the Leg and Foot Morphology International Journal of Wood Culture (2023) 1-16 Downloaded from Brill.com 01/25/2024 10:18:29PM via Open Access.This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license.https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

TABLE 5
Cross-table and Chi-square test results (cont.)

TABLE 6
Cross-table and Chi-square test results of legs and feet morphology analysis of armchairs with curved rest Downloaded from Brill.com 01/25/2024 10:18:29PM via Open Access.This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license.https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/An Analysis of the Leg and Foot Morphology International Journal of Wood Culture (2023) 1-16

TABLE 6
Cross-table and Chi-square test results (cont.) Downloaded from Brill.com 01/25/2024 10:18:29PM via Open Access.This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license.https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/