Tao Yuanming’s Perspectives on Life as Reflected in His Poems on History


Studies on Tao Yuanming have often focused on his personality, reclusive life, and pastoral poetry. However, Tao’s extant oeuvre includes a large number of poems on history. This article aims to complement current scholarship by exploring his viewpoints on life through a close reading of his poems on history. His poems on history are a key to Tao’s perspectives with regard to the factors that decide a successful political career, the best way to cope with difficulties and frustrations, and the situations in which literati should withdraw from public life. Examining his positions reveals the connections between these different aspects. These poems express Tao’s perspectives on life, as informed by his historical predecessors and philosophical beliefs, and as developed through his own life experience and efforts at poetic composition.

composed one of his extant biographies.1 Over the years, Tao's pastoral poetry, his biography, and his reclusive lifestyle have received much attention from scholars using both traditional text-centered approaches and new approaches informed by manuscript culture, reception studies, and research into reading practices.2 Scholars have examined the factors which impacted Tao's personality, lifestyle, and stylistic choices, focusing on the influence of "dark learning" or Neo- Through writing yongshi shi, Tao synthesized relevant historical materials with his own perception of various aspects of life, including but not limited to his views of political careers, poetry composition, the experience of reclusion, and family life. Tao developed his rensheng guan by discussing three main issues in his yongshi shi: the desire for the proper appreciation of scholars, the problem of following the Dao in poverty, and the idea of withdrawing from politics after achieving results. Tao's views on these issues hinge on his understanding of "timeliness" [shi 時]. Although Tao was not the first writer to discuss these problems, his innovation was to connect these different issues and to internalize and individualize principles drawn from the lives of the ancients, which he applied not only to his poetry but also to his life. This innovation of practicing the values that he discussed in his yongshi shi in turn heightened the significance of these ancient figures.
Tao Yuanming read widely in history, so he could interpret ancient figures from a variety of perspectives. Scholars have widely acknowledged that Tao was exceptionally well read in history. Qi Yishou 齊益壽 believes that Tao Yuanming's erudition likely stems from the influence and environment of his family, which possessed large private collections of books. Tao  Most of the historical figures about whom Tao wrote were talented scholars who suffered political setbacks and were therefore unable to realize their ideals in the societies in which they lived. As for the difficulties they faced in accomplishing their political goals, Tao argues that, given the fickleness of public opinion, timeliness plays a key role in determining one's success.9 For Tao, timeliness refers to both conditions that one can control -speaking or writing the right message with the right delivery at the right moment -and conditions beyond one's control, such as whether one was born in a harmonious society and has the opportunity to serve a virtuous ruler.  . He sought to institute reforms and reduce the power of local lords, but he was slandered by officials opposed to him and died young at the age of 33. 11 The first couplet also appears in the biography that Tao wrote for Meng Jia, Tao's maternal grandfather.
Journal of chinese humanities 6 (2020) 235-258 At the beginning of this poem, Tao seems to espouse a conventional Confucian teaching: that timeliness is essential to cultivating one's moral values and advancing one's career. He cites Ji 稷 and Xie 契 as examples of men who encountered a time when their abilities were appreciated by virtuous rulers and put in a good use. By way of contrast, Qu Yuan and Jia Yi were virtuous and willing to serve, but they had the misfortune of not being born at the right time and not encountering worthy rulers. Despite having abilities comparable to the exemplary officials Ji and Xie, Qu and Jia were doubted, slandered, and forced into exile. Consequently, their potential was never fully realized, and they were instead forced to use literature to articulate their thoughts and vent their frustrations with respect to society and politics. Tao wrote this poem after reading the Shiji, which suggests that Tao's understanding of the function of literature commenting on social reality is inspired by Sima Qian's theory of "venting frustrations" [ fafen 發憤] from "The Letter to This couplet alludes to a passage in the Zhuangzi: "The sleek-furred fox and the elegantly spotted leopard dwell in the mountain forest and crouch in the cliffside caves -such is their quietude. They go abroad by night but lurk at home by day -such is their caution. Though hunger, thirst, and hardship press them, they steal forth only one by one to seek food by the rivers and lakes -such is their forethought. And yet they can't seem to escape the disaster of nets and traps. Where is the blame? Their fur is their undoing." The English translation follows the one provided by Burton   plan to annex the other six states, Li slandered Han in front of the king, which led to Han Fei's imprisonment and poisoning.21 In the end, Han's talent led to his own demise. In his work "Shuinan" 說難, Han discussed methods for persuading rulers, but failed to persuade the ruler of Qin of his own worth, and was persecuted for irritating a major official. Tao therefore uses Han's life experience to express his perspective on losing one's moment. If someone misses their moment, regardless of their effort and dedication, they cannot achieve anything, and in fact, ironically, the more effort they put in, the quicker and more dramatic their failure will be. Yet at the same time that Tao believes that timeliness is indispensable, he also believes that compromising one's principles, whatever the circumstances might be, is never acceptable. This principle is made clear in Tao's poem on the two recluses of Lu, a reworking of a story from the Shiji:

魯二儒
The Two Confucian Scholars from the State of Lu22 易代隨時， "The change of dynasties follows the passage of time,23 迷變則愚。 If puzzled by changes, one is truly confounded." 介介若人， Upright gentlemen the two Confucian scholars were, 特為貞夫。 They were especially lofty and resolute. 德不百年， "When virtue has not been present for a hundred years, 汙我詩書。 It taints our documents." 逝然不顧， They resolutely ignored [Shusun's invitation], 被褐幽居。 Wearing coarse clothes, they lived in reclusion.
The first couplet initially seems to be Tao's own commentary but is actually a subtle citation of an observation by Shusun

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Journal of chinese humanities 6 (2020) 235-258 that two Confucian scholars who refused to participate in the reformation of rites and procedures for the new Han dynasty held antiquated beliefs.24 However, the second couplet shows that Tao does not consider these scholars to be backward; instead, Tao praises the two scholars for their integrity, overlooking their seemingly eccentric behavior, because the two Confucian scholars spurned Shusun, stating, "He served almost ten rulers, and he obtained each one's favor through obsequiousness."25 With respect to Shusun Tong, Tao's opinion diverges from that of Sima Qian, who praised Shusun: "Shusun Tong observed the world and adjusted his approach to affairs, establishing and adapting rituals in accordance with the changing times. Eventually, he became the Confucian elder master of the Han dynastic house."26 Tao, however, advocates holding steadfast to one's principles, regardless of the changing times. He emphasizes the virtuous words and deeds of the two scholars. For instance, the third couplet changes to the first person, mimicking the two scholars' tone as they refused to help reform ritual and music for the new dynasty, since they believed that such a reformation should only be conducted after a long period of ascending virtue. Tao revered the way in which the two scholars from Lu maintained their integrity. In other poems dealing with personal choice in a fast-changing transitional environment, Tao advocated for withdrawing from public life and "delighting in the Dao in poverty" [anpin ledao 安貧樂道] instead of changing with the times. As discussed above, timeliness is a key prerequisite for the exercise of virtue. If the moment is right, a virtuous scholar should serve the state, but if the moment is not right, those who do not want to sacrifice principles should, according to Tao, anpin ledao. Tao not only advocated this principle in his writing, but also tried to practice this ideal in his own life, despite knowing the difficulty and drudgery that this lifestyle would entail. As he wrote in his "Stirred by Unappreciated Scholars" [Gan shi buyu fu 感士不遇賦], "I would rather suffer poverty to achieve my intentions, /neither compromising nor burdening myself."27 Tao motivated himself to delight in poverty and enjoy a life suited to his nature by reflecting on figures from history who followed a similar path. In a poem composed in 403, Tao praises the concept of anpin ledao and demonstrates how he applied it to his own life. 24 Sima Qian, Shiji, 99.2722-2723 Sima Qian, Shiji, 99.2722. 26 Sima Qian, Shiji, 99.2726. 27 Yuan, Tao  The "Old Teacher" Tao refers to is Confucius, a substantial influence on Tao's writings and thought, whose injunction from the Analects he quotes: "Worry about the Dao, not about poverty!" Given a hypothetical extreme situation, Confucius advocates that a gentleman should seek and follow the Dao no matter what poverty or misfortune he encounters: The Master said, "The gentleman devotes his mind to attaining the Dao and not to securing food. Go and till the land and you will end up by being hungry, as a matter of course; study, and you will end up with the salary of an official, as a matter of course. living, providing a physical and financial foundation for studying the classics. Eventually, Tao's personal way of dealing with difficult situations shaped his perspective on ancient figures, which in return contributed to his decision to live a reclusive life and his firm belief in anpin ledao. Alan Berkowitz has noted that "recluses" in early medieval China were actually highly sociable and "reclusion" often served as a short-cut for seeking remunerative official positions.31 By way of contrast, Tao advocated for a sincere reclusion aimed at adhering to the Dao. His position was expressed through a series of seven poems on ancient scholars who were materially poor but spiritually rich.32 In each of these poems, he starts with the theme of the brutality of the natural world -a severe winter or gloomy weather -then discusses the effects of the poverty that the scholars suffered, such as a lack of proper food and clothes, before finally posing a rhetorical question to show that despite this unfavorable situation, these poor scholars cited ancient figures as role models, and ultimately found contentment by delighting in the Dao. Reading books, enjoying music (in particular, playing the zither and singing), and engaging in conversation created cultural capital which compensated for the material deprivation of the lifestyle of the recluse. However, the extreme poverty Tao suffered made it difficult to engage in even these activities. As Robert Ashmore discusses, the central irony of the poem is "a tension between an ideal and a person who confronts that ideal and questions whether it is adequate to his experience or his experience adequate to it."37 Tao is surrounded by books and yet is unable to engage in the study that is indispensable to his literati identity and ideals of moral cultivation. The continuous use of strong negative words, such as "has/have no" [wu 無], "absolute/absolutely" [ jue 絕], "no/not" [bu 不], and "no/not" [ fei 非], reveals Tao's helplessness and embarrassment, and engenders compassion within the reader. Tao's embarrassment is also revealed through self-effacing comic detail: "sunbathing" because he lacks clothes in winter, pouring out an empty jar. To mitigate the tension between ideal and reality and console himself, Tao looks to figures from history. Tao adopts the character ci 此 in the last line to refer to the virtuous men of antiquity. This is not the only occasion that Tao weathered dire poverty by focusing on the example of ancient virtuous figures and their works. In the poem "Presented to My Cousin Jingyuan in the Twelfth Month of the Guimao Year" [Guimao sui shier yue zhong zuo yu congdi Jingyuan 癸卯歲十二月中作與 從弟敬遠], Tao describes a period spent in his poor and empty house surveying ancient books. Although the sages were gone, the writings that recorded their words and deeds remained. The books were Tao's companions as he actively sought to follow in the footsteps of the sages.
Tao's aim in following the example of the sages was to adhere to the Dao, even in a moment of great difficulty. The Dao in Tao's mind was not abstract, 36 A reference to an episode in the life of Confucius in which he and his disciples were imperiled in the state of Chen. In the first couplet, Tao praises Rong Qiqi, a character in the Liezi 列子 whose life and personality Confucius apparently admired. Although Rong lived in poverty, he was nevertheless happy. As Rong explains to Confucius: My joys are very many. Heaven gives birth to the Ten Thousand Things, but man alone is noble. I had the luck to become a man; this is my first joy. In the distinction of male and female, the male is noble and the female 38 Yuan, Tao Yuanming ji jianzhu, 368. 39 The meaning of "Shang" here is somewhat unclear. It could mean the second note of the scale, which is often associated with melancholy and depression. Davis argues, "Since T'ao appears to follow written sources so closely here, it seems best to understand it as ' base, therefore to be a male is considered honorable. Since I had the luck to become a male, this is my second joy. Among those who were born are some who do not see a day or a month or do not live beyond babyhood. Since I have lived for ninety years, this is my third joy.42 Rong was optimistic, and found value in such ordinary activities as playing musical instruments and singing. The Liezi's Confucius approved of his outlook on life. Tao then provides another example of an honorable poor scholar, Yuan Xian who was a disciple of Confucius and suffered from poverty but was unwilling to compromise his principles to acquire wealth. Through his austerity, Yuan adhered to Confucius' position on the relationship between poverty, wealth, and the Dao, articulated in the following passage from the Analects: The Master said, "Wealth and high station are what men desire but unless I got them in the right way I would not remain in them. Poverty and low station are what men dislike, but even if I did not get them in the right way I would not try to escape from them."43 Confucius acknowledges the commonsense position that wealth and social status are desirable, but insists that obeying the Dao, the guiding principle in life, must come first. Furthermore, he emphasizes that the proper way to confront and even overcome poverty is through benevolence and virtues. Tao

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Journal of chinese humanities 6 (2020) 235-258 In these allusions, Tao references two scholars whose physical poverty did not prevent them from enjoying meaningful and virtuous lives. Tao alludes to these figures not only to praise their values, but also to actively associate himself with them. For similar reasons, Tao dedicated a poem to Zhang Zhongwei 張仲蔚 of the Eastern Han . The poem directly expresses Tao's deep appreciation of Zhang's personality and moral worth. Zhang's way of life was an example of the Dao in which Tao delighted: 其六 VI45 仲蔚愛窮居， Zhongwei liked living a poor life. 遶宅生蒿蓬。 All around his residence grew wild grasses. 翳然絕交游， Concealing himself, he broke away from social circuits. 賦詩頗能工。 He was quite skilled at composing poetry. 舉世無知者， In all the world, there was no one who knew him, 止有一劉龔。 There was only Liu Gong. 此士胡獨然？ Why was this scholar so lonely? 寔由罕所同。 Indeed, because he could seldom find others like himself. 介然安其業， He was steadfast and content with his deeds.46 所樂非窮通。 What he enjoyed was neither failure or success. 人事固以拙， Certainly, I am clumsy in dealing with the affairs of men. 聊得長相從。 I just want to follow him for a long time.
Few historical records documenting Zhang Zhongwei survive, and his presence in Tao's yongshi shi is another element which distinguishes Tao's work from other poets in the genre, who focused on better-known figures. In his "Yong pinshi," Tao Yuanming often combines together references to several scholars, but this poem exclusively praises Zhang Zhongwei, demonstrating his profound admiration of Zhang. Tao believed that because Zhang Zhongwei's happiness did not rely on conventional definitions of success and failure, a person like Zhang was close to the Dao. Zhang also offered a model for achieving one's goals even in an environment of scarcity. Zhang's example shows the influence on Tao of Confucian values -namely, the idea that righteousness, not worldly success or failure, is the path to spiritual affluence and satisfaction. If one does not follow this righteous path and instead pursues wealth and status for its own sake, it stains the conscience. In the Analects, Confucius compares these ill-gotten gains to a transitory cloud: The Master said, "In the eating of coarse rice and the drinking of water, the using of one's elbow for a pillow, joy is to be found. Wealth and rank attained through immoral means have as much to do with me as passing clouds.

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Journal of chinese humanities 6 (2020) 235-258 this desire in the final couplet. James Hightower points out the function of the word zhuo 拙 in the penultimate line: "[Tao] is not pleading ineptitude as an excuse for staying out of worldly affairs, he is also claiming the kind of natural simplicity he spoke of in the first of the 'Back to the Farm' poems, 'Simplicity intact, I have come back to the field.'"50 For Tao, Zhang's reclusion and focus on self-cultivation represented an ideal model of simple virtue, and he paid particular attention to Zhang's close relationship with his few friends. Even more isolated than Zhang, Tao could only seek consolation and spiritual support in virtuous figures from antiquity. Given that anpin ledao was neither a comfortable nor easy lifestyle to adopt, why was Tao drawn to it? Tao's embrace of the ideal is likely related to the fate of his own political pursuits in a complicated and tumultuous political environment.51 Tao    camp. In the eighth month of the same year, Tao became magistrate of Pengze County [Pengze ling 彭澤令], abandoning the position abruptly three months later, possibly due to his sister's death in Wuchang. The fast-changing and ruthless political environment Tao experienced over the course of his career likely influenced his decision to permanently become a recluse. Tao, who had worked with Liu Yu before Liu rebelled, may have sensed his ambition. Tao also witnessed the rise and fall of Huan Xuan, one of Liu's major competitors, whom Tao regarded highly. After experiencing so many disappointments, Tao's dream of achieving his ideals through politics began to fade. Reflecting on his life in his later years, Tao was keenly aware that he had not fulfilled the political aspirations expressed in the poetry he composed as a young man, and instead consoled himself by pointing to his steadfast principles. As Wendy Swartz notes, the elegy of Tao written by Yan Yanzhi emphasized this moral quality: "All the descriptions of his life and character in the elegy point to the same pair of ideas: contentment in poverty and steadfastness in reclusion."52 Tao's sentiments were vindicated by later critics, most notably the influential late imperial literati Gui Youguang 歸有光  and Wen Runeng 温汝能 [1748-1811], who praised his embrace of anpin ledao.53 Through his espousal of this ideal, Tao successfully secured his place in Chinese literary and cultural history. Yet Tao's yongshi shi do not always focus on unsuccessful scholars. Tao also examines several historical figures who were able to achieve their goals. Tao advocates for those successful in achieving their goals to "withdraw after making contributions" [gongcheng shentui 功成身退]. The concept is to achieve something [gongcheng 功成], and then, as the wheel of fortune is always turning, especially in a chaotic era, to avoid potential disasters by withdrawing from politics [shentui 身退]. Gongcheng shentui comes from chapter two of the Dao de jing 道德經, which challenges the conventional wisdom around duality and contrasts, and explains the attitude a sage should hold toward achievements: 是以聖人處無為之事， Therefore the sage keeps to the deed that consists in taking no action 行不言之教。 and practices the teaching that uses no words. 萬物作焉而不辭 ( influence -once political results are achieved, one should discard fame and reputation and withdraw from public life. To explain gongcheng shentui, Tao raises the issue of dynastic transitions and then focuses on the two Shus, whom he considered to be the best representatives of how to approach that problem. Most of the poem celebrates the actions that result from their Daoist-influenced worldview: their abdication of official duties, and their indifference to fame and to leaving a material legacy for their descendants. Tao praises the two Shus for understanding the idea of gongcheng shentui and the true meaning of the Dao. After contributing to the state by tutoring the crown prince, they withdrew from politics and enjoyed a quiet life in their home village. They understood that trying to achieve more would have defied the will of nature and only undermined their aims. Their lack of interest in fame and material possessions made them influential models for generations of scholars and officials. The last couplet places the two Shus' deeds in a longer historical context, asserting that the Dao the two Shus adhered to will last forever. Where Tao They were willing to go with him.

厚恩固難忘，
Great kindness was indeed difficult to forget. 君命安可違？ 59 How could they defy their lord's command?
The story of the Three Good Men can be found in many literary and historical accounts. Two representative historical accounts appear in the Zuozhuan 左傳 and the Shiji. The Zuozhuan is the earliest extant account: 58 The "ferry to all directions" [tongjin 通津] is a conventional trope for embarking on an official career. 59 Yuan, Tao Yuanming ji jianzhu, 383.

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Journal of chinese humanities 6 (2020) 235-258 Renhao, the Duke of Qin died. With him were buried alive the three sons of the Ziju clan: Yanxi, Zonghang, and Qianhu. All three were among the finest men of the Qin. People of the state lamented over their fate and composed the poem "Yellow Bird."60 The account in the Shiji is similar: In the thirty-ninth year [of his reign], Duke Mu died. He was interred at Yong. Those who followed him into death numbered one hundred seventy-seven. Among them were three members of the Ziyu family of good subjects, who were named Yanxi, Zhonghang, and Qianhu. The people of Qin mourned them and made and sang for them the poem "Huang niao."61 Both the Zuo zhuan and Shiji accounts record that after Lord Mu of Qin died, the Three Good Men were buried alive with him. The people of Qin lamented their fate and composed the poem "Yellow Birds" to commemorate them. Tao's poem demonstrates that the Three Good Men were eager to serve their country and diligently worked for their ruler. During their moment, they were highly favored, treated with dignity, and achieved great political success. However, their success was tightly bound to Lord Mu, and they were therefore unable to withdraw from the political world before they met a grim fate. Gongcheng shentui requires the courage and willingness to abandon one's immediate interests, and the wisdom to leave the service of a ruler safely and smoothly. Practically speaking, such a withdrawal is often hard to achieve because a ruler is loath to relinquish a loyal and effective official. Gongcheng shentui profoundly influenced the course of Tao's life. It appears not only in his yongshi shi, but also in his poems addressed to family members. But after reaching this level of success, he retreated from political life, refusing even the important positions bestowed upon him personally by the emperor. Tao Yuanming therefore saw gongcheng shentui as part of his family legacy, a legacy he wanted his sons to continue.
This article investigates Tao's perspective on life as expressed in his yongshi shi. Tao was well-read, and his rich understanding of Chinese culture is deeply rooted in that reading, but his perspective on life is also a product of his own life experience. The historical figures that Tao commented on are distributed across many centuries, from Ji and Xie in the mythical reigns of Yao 堯 and Shun 舜 to several figures from the Eastern Han. For the most part, the subjects of these poems were not majestic rulers nor major officials, but virtuous and upright scholars whom Tao saw as men worthy of emulation. By analyzing Tao's interpretation of the legacies of these scholars, we can better understand his perspective on life and his personality, which in turn augments our ability to interpret his other writings.
Tao's yongshi shi emphasize a series of key values and concepts he felt were key to leading a successful, ethical life. Tao believed that timeliness was essential to the political success of the scholar. Ji and Xie became virtuous models of great officials because they arrived at the right historical moment, whereas the equally virtuous Qu Yuan and Jia Yi were suspected and slandered because they arrived on the political stage at the wrong time. Tao felt that without timeliness, regardless of one's efforts and dedication, it would be nearly impossible to achieve lasting political accomplishments, and he therefore encouraged literati not to try to manufacture opportunities through clever schemes and artful 63 Tao Kan's posthumous title was Huan 桓, which when reduplicated means "mighty and powerful." He was granted the title Commandery Duke of Changsha [Changsha jungong 长沙郡公] in recognition of his military merits. 64 Yuan, Tao Yuanming ji jianzhu, 41.

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Journal of chinese humanities 6 (2020) 235-258 rhetoric. Such tactics would be not only unseemly but ultimately counterproductive, as was tragically the case for Han Fei. Tao sometimes contradicted the verdicts of the historical accounts he alluded to and re-evaluated these figures according to his own ideals, as in the case of the two Confucian scholars and Shusun Tong described in the Shiji. Tao sought to use literature to circulate accounts of "unappreciated scholars" and in doing so, make a space for them in literary history. Writing yongshi shi was a way to achieve many aspirations: expressing emotions, making up for political failure, transmitting one's ideas and intentions to later readers, and achieving literary immortality. Along with advocating for the achievement of one's goals by means of literature, Tao was committed to the ideal of anpin ledao. Adhering to the Dao was not an abstract concept in Tao's poems, but was rather made concrete through the example of praiseworthy ancient figures, and lived cultural practices such as reading, writing, and making and appreciating music. Living in poverty was difficult, but the historical figures that Tao praised overcame these difficulties and were able to uphold the principles of the Dao. Like Tao, most of these historical figures lived through transitional and chaotic periods and consequently withdrew from politics, abandoned efforts to pursue fame and reputation, and focused instead on cultivating their moral values. Tao projected himself onto these historical figures, and his vivid depictions of professed moral values in turn influenced later readers understanding of Tao's personality and output.
Although some of Tao's yongshi shi discuss life on the farm, for Tao, farming was a channel for putting his ideals into practice, and his focus remained on cultivating virtue. By commemorating historical figures in poems, Tao kept these figures alive in the spiritual world and the imaginary of scholars long after they would have otherwise been forgotten. Tao's yongshi shi have served as a medium for passing down the deeds and virtues of historical figures to future generations. Tao connected ancient figures with a future audience and in doing so, he placed himself in this lineage.65 In writing yongshi shi, Tao expressed his profound understanding of the past. He not only presented examples of literati dealing with unfavorable political situations, cherishing the Dao in adversity, and withdrawing from office after achievements were made, but also incorporated his own experience of internalizing these principles, making them more concrete and personal.