A Humble Vessel for the Water of Life

This essay explores the form and function of drinking vessels and their role and meaning in relationship to Arabic and Persian inscriptions within Islamic metalwork. The focus is a thirteenth-century jug from the Aga Khan Museum Collection. While similar jugs have been variously considered as vessels for water, wine, or sherbet, the anonymous epigrapher of the bilingual inscriptions on this example refers to water as the “water of life” (Pers. āb -e ḥayāt ). These inscrip-tions prompt an examination of the relationship between object, image, and text in connection with water, an elixir of long or eternal life, in both a secular setting and a courtly context.

The pyriform body of the Aga Khan Museum's jug has a slightly everted cylindrical neck and sits on a gently bevelled foot.The curved handle is a replacement mounted during a later period (Fig. 1).The jug displays the complexity of multiple layers through ornamental silver inlaid decoration.Between two inscription bands, interlinked polylobed medallions containing representations of zodiac signs are arranged on a T-shaped keypattern background (Fig. 2).The neck is connected to the body by a toroidal moulding decorated with a chevron pattern.The ornamentation of the vessel corresponds to the Islamic intellectual tradition of the thirteenth century.
The Aga Khan Museum jug shares similarities in shape and decorative layout with the vase made by ʿAlī ibn Ḥamūd al-Mawṣilī, kept in the Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence.The latter assumed to have been executed in Mosul for Haqta bin Tudra, a Christian, is dated 657/1259.1The T-pattern, well known for its presence on the famous Blacas ewer (dated 629/1232 and made in Mosul),2 also appears on both the Torontonian and Florentine vessels.However, unlike the Bargello example, motifs on the Aga Khan Museum's jug are not arranged in a diagonal grid.Both have bodies embellished with polylobed medallions and characteristic rosettes, all situated between horizontal inscription bands.In contrast to the Bargello vase, the vessel in Toronto only displays rosettes above its eight-lobed medallions, each filled with eleven of the twelve symbols3 of the zodiac cycle (Fig. 2).4Although the Aga Khan Museum vessel is not of the same excellent quality as the Bargello vase, it has nonetheless, been described as appearing "to depend on the same tradition as Ali ibn Hamud."5Julian Raby emphasizes the importance of the Aga Khan Museum example as the only known thirteenthcentury Mosul-style vessel with a Persian inscription, suggesting it was made for a Persian-speaking bureaucrat working for the Ilkhanids, either in Mosul or in western Iran.6 The extensive use of silver inlay and the decorative repertoire affirm its status as a "luxury object" for an elite household or a court, which supports his suggestion.7

1
The Inscriptions on the Jug Around the neck, the Arabic inscription in silver plaited Kufic, surrounded by human heads (Fig. 4

Historical Framework
Examining this vessel within its historical and dynastic framework, as well as the appropriate social context, suggests a connection to the metalwork tradition of Mosul during the thirteenth century.The artistic legacy of the Seljuqs survived strongly through their successor states in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, specifically in Anatolia and Jazira.9Two Turkish dynasties with origins in the Great Seljuq state ruled Jazira: the Artuqids (ca.495-812/1102-1409), who were of Turkmen origin, and the Zangids (521-649/1127-1251), who originally were military slaves.Zangid rule of the Jazira was split between different branches of the family, with one controlling Jazirat ibn Umar, Mosul, Shahrazur, and Sinjar until the Mongol invasions.In Mosul, one of the Zangids' military commanders had rebelled: Badr al-Dīn LuʾLuʾ (608-57/1211-59),10 an Anatolian-Armenian enslaved soldier.Badr al-Dīn LuʾLuʾ became increasingly independent from the Zangid dynasty and established a centre of extraordinary courtly workshops in Mosul renowned for outstanding inlaid metalwork production.11Richly decorated copper-alloy bottles, bowls, cups ( jam), and jugs (mashraba) of the thirteenth century attest to the rich banquets and celebratory ceremonies with elaborate rituals organised at the Mosul court in the tradition of the Great Seljuqs.The variety of shapes and sizes of these artworks, particularly those cast in brass or bronze inlaid with silver, suggests a society with highly developed social customs and etiquette.Sophisticated examples of metalwork affirm Badr al-Dīn LuʾLuʾ's patronage and his ambition to become a universal power, along with the iconographic repertoire and inscriptions employed by courtly artists and artisans of his time.The artistic repertoire of earlier dynasties included stellar constellations as well as figurative representations and symbolic illustrations of the planets, a trend that increased with the age of transformation of knowledge during the ʿAbbasid caliphal rule.Transformation and expansion of knowledge were decidedly linked to interactions among civilisations.In pursuit of scientific knowledge, Jewish, Christian, and Muslim scholars studied texts and treatises from Greek, Persian, Indian, and Chinese traditions, translating them into Arabic and disseminating them further.Between the late-twelfth and early-fourteenth centuries, interest in ancient Greek philosophy, science, and especially astronomy -including magic and the world of astrology -reached unprecedented heights.During this time, ancient Greek astronomy, the oldest of the sciences and one of the most powerful contributions to the evolution of human thought,12 became the source of artistic iconography on metalwork.13Generally speaking, these motifs of heavenly bodies or signs fell into one of two categories: planets or zodiac signs with no relation to one another and astrological signs of the zodiac associated with their astrological lords or planets.
Most of the representations of zodiacs on metalwork in the late-twelfth and thirteenth centuries belong to the latter category.14The Aga Khan Museum jug follows this tradition (Fig. 3).
In the 1970s, James Allan carried out comprehensive studies on metalwork, and he accurately referred to the extensive use of the inlay technique on bronze artworks in the twelfth century as an important milestone within Islamic metalwork.15Julian Raby's research on Mosul metalware allows us to discuss this topic through various aspects and challenges: the formalised "school" of metalwork in the city, especially the motifs, styles, and techniques, were developed and shared over the course of five decades.16Linda Komaroff laid the groundwork for further inquiry into socio-cultural interpretations of water vessels and classified them into two main categories: washing vessels and drinking vessels.She also offers information about their use.17When examining their function, Komaroff takes inspiration from research on Italian Renaissance majolica, demonstrating that changes in vessel form reflect complex changes in diet and dining habits.18 Drinking vessels are not restricted to a specific liquid, and poetic inscriptions may offer further suggestions for their use.the tradition of the "Alexander Romance," Alexander the Great, after many spectacular adventures, finally arrives with his three hundred and sixty chosen men at a spring: "the water was very clear and shone as though it were lightning.The air too was fragrant and most sweet."23In the legendary story, Alexander inadvertently (without noticing it, nor drinking from it) finds the "water of life," the "spring of immortality," before he continues with his expedition against Poros, the King of India.24 Apart from his self-representation as the universal ruler of Asia, Alexander the Great was undeniably attracted to the concept of Iranian kingship, defined by divine election, world domination, and imperial splendour.25Within the Islamic intellectual tradition and in Perso-Arab literature, Alexander the Great is understood to be the ideal hero, king, and prophet.Equipped with a lust for wonder and adventure and a thirst for knowledge, he achieved the status of the ideal ruler and excellent warrior with unparalleled grandeur and ultimately reached the stage of a monotheistic prophet26 who had discovered the "water of life." Inscriptions on metalwork from the late-thirteenth century refer to allegorical and mystical poems.Vessels designated for water often carry allegorical inscriptions that include explanatory information regarding the quality of the liquid.A number of these inscriptions make allusions to Alexander the Great and the "water of life," offering a promise of eternal life to the person who drinks from the vessel.27While Arabic inscriptions on this humble vessel in the Aga Khan Museum Collection contain blessings to its unnamed owner, Persian inscriptions with a reference to the sun, the centre of the depicted zodiac circle, invite one to drink from the vessel, to become eternal.Through the inscriptions, the owner of this vessel can aspire to reach the status of an ancient king, e.g., Alexander the Great.28 Another connection between the jug and Alexander is his thirst for knowledge, especially finding the "water of life" after entering the "Land of Darkness."In this context, water becomes a symbol of knowledge and enlightenment.According to an esoteric interpretation (ta ʾwīl) of the Quran by the Ismaʿilis, "water is indispensable for the preservation and growth of life, knowledge is vital for the soul.As water washes away the material pollution from the body, knowledge purifies the soul from spiritual impurities."This interpretation later inspired Sufis as well.29A brass jug, dated 889/1484 and signed, bears inscriptions shedding further light on this context: may you know that every source of water is from Khidr, In this jug is the water of life, It is the water of life from the spring of knowledge, Boiling up from the source of meaning, You will find the eternal life of Khidr, If you bring this jug to your lips, If, of the water that gives life to your body, You do not consider it as being without the divine presence.30

Form of the Vessel and Its Connection to Iran
When looking at the shape of this jug, the comparable vase from Florence indicates a connection to metalwork production in Mosul.The question arises: is the shape of these drinking vessels an original creation of Mosul?The jug's Persian inscription warrants a closer exploration of Iranian art, where we find a fine type of pyriform jug (mašraba) resting on a low-ring foot, which has existed in the repertoire of Iranian artisans since the eighth century.The development of its typology has previously been discussed through four examples.31Even though the form of this vessel type remains relatively unchanged during its production history, the artistic repertoire and the inscriptions of these drinking vessels may provide insights into their production center[s].

Conclusion
The long tradition of pyriform vessels clearly shows the legacy of an intellectual oeuvre, which created an immersive blend of ancient Greek philosophy and science with pre-Islamic Persian etiquette and literature translated and adapted into Arabic and Farsi.The vessels were associated with thaumaturgical effects, likely believed to succeed with the cosmic help of the zodiac.Metalwork artisans of the thirteenth century, through their artistic repertoire and silver inlay technique, were able to manifest this multi-faceted kaleidoscopic knowledge and belief in the ornaments on a modest vessel, the jug.

About the Author
Filiz Çakır Phillip holds a DPhil.from the Institute of Art History at Freie Universität Berlin and is a specialist in Islamic art with extensive curatorial and research experience.She worked as a curator at the Aga Khan Museum (2013-22)

Phillip
Journal of Material Cultures in the Muslim World 3 (2022) 79-88 Melikian-Chirvani alludes to a possible relationship between the "School of Mosul" and the "western Iran school" at the end of the thirteenth century or even earlier.32Pyriform vessels were disseminated widely after the Mongol invasions in the Near East, and many artists from Mosul emigrated to Egypt, Syria, or even Iran,33 searching for new customers to buy their products.Pyriform jugs and ewers were not produced exclusively in bronze, as later examples of Iznik ceramics exemplify, underlining the intimate exchange between bronze, ceramic, and earthenware.The monumental work Iznik: The Pottery of Ottoman Turkey, first published in 1989, displays the wealth of types and forms of vessels produced in Iznik.One of these is the mašraba.34Timurid examples show variations of this type executed in jade as well.35

Figure 4
Figure 4 Jug detail, Aga Khan Museum, Toronto, acc.no.AKM986 and at the Museum für Islamische Kunst inBerlin (2006-12).Çakır Phillip has curated numerous exhibitions and authored several books, including Arts of the East: Highlights of Islamic Art from the Bruschettini Collection (Hirmer Verlag, 2017) and Syrian Living: Medieval to Modern (Aga KhanMuseum, 2022).She also serves as a board member for the Association of Art Museum Curators.