(1876–1953) Founder of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932. After conquering power in the Najd region with his Wahhābī allies, he succeeded in defeating Sharīf Ḥusayn, ruler of the Hijaz on behalf of the Ottoman government, and in establishing an independent regime in 1924. His government inaugurated far-reaching changes in the hajj on the levels of infrastructure and organization, and established a strict religious supervision of its procedures. It resulted in the demolition of many historical sites in Mecca and Medina, in order to prevent ritual and devotional practices which were deemed irreconcilable with the concept of God’s unity (tawḥīd).

(d. 678) One of the wives of the Prophet Muhammad, who reached a prominent status among the believers.

(598–661) Nephew and adopted son of the Muhammad. He married the Prophet’s daughter Fāṭima. After the Prophet’s death, a faction of the leaders of the Quraysh tribe preferred ‘Alī as his successor instead of Abū Bakr. Later, the tensions led to an armed conflict between the two factions, which resulted in the split between Sunnism and Shiʿism, the main doctrinal currents in Islam.

The plain outside Mecca where during the hajj the main rite of the wuqūf takes place. Here the Jabal al-Raḥma (Mountain of Mercy) is situated where, according to a popular understanding of the Islamic tradition, Adam and Eve were reunited after their expulsion from paradise.

Day on which the martyrdom of ʿAlī’s son Ḥusayn is commemorated by the Shiʿis, who was killed during the struggle of the ʿAlid faction for the Caliphate in 680 (10 muḥarram).

Afternoon prayer.

Religious scholar; jurist.

(573–634) Successor of Muhammad as leader of the Muslim community; first caliph.

A term indicating ‘cultural refinement’ or ‘good manners’. It refers to a literary corpus which comprises the requirements and standards of cultural sophistication, but also indications for proper conduct and accepted procedures. The adab al-ziyāra, for instance, refers to the procedures for the visit to the Prophet’s grave in Medina.

The call for prayer, performed by a muezzin.

Reward in the Hereafter for proper conduct on earth.

Most important mosque and religious university in Cairo, considered as authoritative throughout the Muslim world; founded in 971.

The commander of the hajj caravan. In present days, often used to designate hajj tour leaders.

title of the Caliph; ‘commander of the faithful’. Also: honorary title of the Moroccan king.

Cemetery in Media, where the graves of many family members and companions of the Prophet are located, as well as those of prominent scholars. Under the Saudi government, the monumental tombs were destroyed, to prevent them from becoming places of worship.

Litt. ‘blessing’ or ‘grace’; spiritual power contained in persons, places or objects, which can benefit the believers in diverse ways.

Litt. ‘innovation’; illegitimate practice or belief introduced by Muslims in contradiction to the Qurʾan or the sharia.

See above ‘al-ḥajar al-aswad’.

Sufi ritual commemorating God’s name, consisting of various practices ranging from recitation and devotional singing, to ecstatic dancing.

Last month of the Muslim year, in which the hajj takes place.

Supplicatory prayers.

Morning prayer.

Religious obligation, such as the hajj.

The opening sura of the Qurʾan, often recited as a short prayer.

(d. 1111) One of the most prominent scholars in the Islamic tradition. His main work is the voluminous theological reference work Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm al-dīn (‘Revival of the religious sciences’), which is also concerned with mystical philosophy.

The mosque in Mecca which contains the Kaʿba, the ‘House of God’.

The corpus of texts containing the Sunna, the acts and sayings of the Prophet.

The Muslim name of the Biblical Hagar.

The Black Stone, inserted in one of the corners of the Kaʿba. It is mostly believed to be recommended to kiss it during the ṭawāf, in emulation of the Prophet. It is considered to have descended from paradise and has many symbolic and religious connotations, according to the Islamic tradition.

One of the types of hajj, in which, according to Islamic law, the hajj and ʿumra are separated by temporarily suspending the iḥrām; the others are tamattuʿ suspending the obligations of iḥrām, and qirān, an uninterrupted combination of ʿumra and hajj.

honorific title for pilgrims during the hajj. In common parlance, it is bestowed on persons who have visited Mecca, as well as being used as a polite way to address older people, regardless whether they have conducted the pilgrimage or not.

Uncle of the Prophet Muhammad who was martyred at the battle of Uḥud, near Medina. His grave at Uḥud was an important site for pilgrims in previous times before it was demolished by the Wahhābīs.

‘Forbidden’, according to Islamic law.

The sacred precinct around Mecca and Medina.

The two Holy Places, Mecca and Medina.

The region in the Arabian Peninsula in which Mecca, Medina, Jedda and Taʾif are situated.

The ‘migration’ of the Prophet from Mecca to Medina, in 622. It marks the beginning of the Muslim era.

The cave near Mecca where the Prophet Muhammad received his first revelations.

Son of ʿAlī and grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, who died in the wars of succession between the ʿAlids and the Umayyads in 680. He is considered a martyr by the Shiʿis. And his mausoleum in Karbala is the most important pilgrimage site for them.

(1853–1931) Sharīf of the Hijaz under the Ottoman government from 1908 until 1924, when he was expelled by ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn Saʿūd. During World War I, he concluded a treaty with the British to become king of a Middle Eastern kingdom, and unleashed the ‘Arab Revolt’ in 1916. However, after the war the British withdrew their support and refused to fulfil their promises, enabling the Sauds to gain the upper hand in Arabia.

The obligatory acts of veneration, which are the five ‘pillars’ of Islam, the shahada, the ṣalāt, the fasting in the month ramaḍān, the zakat, and the ḥajj.

(1703–1792) Arabian religious scholar and reformer, who concluded a pact in 1740 with the Saud family to establish a religiously inspired regime in Arabia, resulting in the first Saudi-Wahhābī revolt. After the coalition was defeated in the 1820s, it remained dormant until the end of the 19th century, when it was restored by ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn Saʿūd, who succeeded in conquering Najd, the Hijaz and finally the whole Arabian Peninsula in the 1920s. In the kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the Wahhābī doctrines are strictly adhered to. They are marked by a strict definition of God’s unity (tawḥīd); an intolerant view of Sufism and spiritual practices, which they consider bidʿa (illegitimate innovation); and ritual practices on historical and religious sites, such as tombs of pious saints and historical figures, which they destroyed as much as possible. Their intolerant vision of the faith has greatly influenced the practice of the hajj, and is often criticized by more tolerant Muslims.

The Muslim name of the Prophet Abraham.

The Feast of Immolation, on the tenth day of the last month of the Islamic calendar dhū al-ḥijja, which concludes the rites of the hajj. Every pilgrim should sacrifice an animal, or take upon themselves a compensation.

Part of the hajj rites; the return from ʿArafa to Muzdalifa after the wuqūf.

Ritual state during the performance of the hajj. It is adopted at one of the prescribed places (mīqāt), and includes the ‘intention’ to perform the hajj, the donning of the ritual dress (two unstitched white cloths for men), and accepting a number of prohibitions, such as the killing of animals, the clipping of nails, shaving, sexual acts, etc. After the hajj rites it is ended before the ritual ‘haircut’ and sacrifice.

Certificate issued by a scholar to another, proving the latter’s proficiency in a specific text or religious ‘curriculum’. Also a certificate proving the fulfilment of the obligation of the hajj, or the initiation into a Sufi brotherhood.

Honorific title indicating several honorary qualities: imam: leader of prayer; imām: title for a prominent legal scholar; Imām: religious leader in the lineage of ʿAlī, venerated by Shiʿis.

faith, belief.

Evening prayer.

The Biblical Ismael; the son of Ibrāhīm and Hājar, who was sent to the desert with his mother to the Arabian desert, where they discovered the Zamzam well. In the Muslim tradition it was Ismāʿīl who was almost sacrificed by his father.

The term used for the ‘pillars’ representing the devil, which are ‘stoned’ during the ramy. The term is also used as a synonym of ramy.

See al-Baqīʿ—cemetery.

The port town of the Hijaz, where pilgrimage ships arrive and depart, and where from the 1830s the European nations had their consulates to serve and supervise the pilgrims from their respective colonies.

The ‘House of God’ symbolizing God’s bond with the believers. It is situated in the Grand Mosque in Mecca and indicates the direction of prayer for Muslims all over the world. According to the tradition, it was built by Ibrāhīm beneath God’s throne. but desecrated by being used as a site of pilgrimage by pre-Islamic Arabs, and restored to its former sanctity by the Prophet Muhammad. It is the site for one of the main rites of the hajj, the ṭawāf, or the sevenfold circumambulation of the cuboid building.

Miraculous act performed by a pious shaykh, in contrast to miracles performed by prophets (muʿjiza).

(d. 619) First wife of the Prophet, and first convert to Islam. Her house and grave were traditionally important places visited by pilgrims, until the Wahhābīs demolished them.

The black covering of the Kaʿba, with gold-embroidered Qurʾanic verses and sayings by the Prophet Muhammad. From the thirteenth century until 1926 it was manufactured in Cairo and sent as a gift to Mecca, with the ceremonial palanquin, or maḥmal, as a token of the bond between Egypt and the Hijaz, a practice which was ended by the Wahhābīs, who considered the ceremonies related to the maḥmal as bid ʿa. The cover is replaced every year.

One of the names of Medina: ‘the Illuminated City’.

The ceremonial palanquin that in previous times was sent annually with the pilgrimage caravans from Egypt and Syria, containing gifts, subsidies, and the kiswa for the Kaʿba, from Egypt, and the covering of the Prophet’s tomb, from Syria. The maḥmals were usually escorted by musical bands and received with much pomp, until the Wahhābīs ended these practices in 1926.

A man who is legally forbidden to marry a woman for reasons of consanguinity, and who therefore can serve as male escort for female pilgrims. Women are obliged to be accompanied by a maḥram when they go on hajj.

Litterally ‘Exalted Mecca’, one of the names of Mecca.

(711–795) Prominent scholar, particularly honoured by North African pilgrims, who used to visit his grave in al-Baqīʿ—cemetery in Medina.

Dynasty of sultans in Egypt (1250–1517), who attached great importance to the organization of the hajj caravans and connected traditions, and who attempted to impose their authority on the Hijaz.

The ‘rites of the hajj’, according to the legal prescriptions, which are modelled after the example of the Prophet’s pilgrimage. The term also refers to compendia of hajj rules, often inserted in hajj travelogues.

The place in the Great Mosque in Mecca, where according to the tradition, Ibrāhīm stood when he built the Kaʿba.

Hill outside the great Mosque, which, together with al-Ṣafā, is the site where the saʿy is performed, the running between al-Ṣafā and al-Marwa seven times, as part of the hajj.

The Holy Mosque in Mecca.

Village between Mecca and ʿArafa, where pilgrims usually camp.

Term indicating the places where it is legally prescribed to take on the iḥrām before entering the sacred precinct and performing the hajj. The place depends on the direction from which the pilgrim arrives.

Guide accompanying pilgrims during the hajj rites and helping them with practicalities, formalities, lodging, transport, etc.

One of the halting places between Mecca and ʿArafa, where pilgrims spend the night in the open and collect pebbles to perform the stoning rite the following day.

Term indicating the process of cultural and political reform from the 1850s onwards, during which the process of ‘modernization’ of the Arab/ Muslim world was debated, as a response to the expansion of the European nations and their economic and military hegemony.

Region in the Arabian Peninsula bordering on the Hijaz, where the Saud family and the Wahhābīs built their power base.

The ‘intention’ to perform a certain ritual, required to render it legally valid. It is pronounced when taking on the iḥrām.

Town on the western coast of Arabia, where usually the iḥrām is adopted (although officially the mīqāt is a few miles away).

Part of the hajj ritual: the throwing of stones to three pillars near Muzdalifa (jamarāt) symbolizing the devil. The number and size of the stones are prescribed; the ramy is performed in two turns, after the wuqūf and after the ending of the hajj. Also called jamra.

Part of the Prophet’s Mosque, next to the Prophet’s tomb.

Litt. ‘journey’; term referring to the genre of travel literature.

Litt. ‘patience’; term to indicate a preferred mental state of perseverance and patience during the hajj, to endure the many hardships it involves.

One of the two small hills outside the Great Mosque in Mecca, from where the saʿy is performed, the running between al-Ṣafā and al-Marwa seven times, as part of the hajj.

See ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Āl Saʿūd; Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb.

The running between al-Ṣafā and al-Marwa seven times. It symbolizes the search for water of Hājar, when she was exiled to Arabia, but it is also meant to exhibit the prowess and strength of the Muslims vis-à-vis their enemies.

(1196–1258) Moroccan scholar and Sufi; founder of the Shādhiliyya, one of the most important Sufi brotherhoods in Islam.

Confession of the Muslim faith; one of the Five Pillars.

Honorary title of families claiming descendance from the Prophet.

Title of ruling dynasty of the Hijaz, under the various Sultanates of Egypt and Istanbul.

Litt. ‘polytheism’; term indicating the violation of the doctrine of God’s unity (tawḥīd). The term is used by the Wahhābīs to denounce practices which according to them contradict orthodoxy.

Muslim spirituality, including both mystical thought and spiritual practices, usually related to various brotherhoods. Practices of Sufis such as the visiting of graves of pious saints, asking their intercession before God, are particularly abhorred by the Wahhābīs. Because of this, tensions occurred between pilgrims from North Africa and Central Asia on the one hand, and the Wahhābīs on the other hand, concerning conventional practices during the hajj.

The formula ‘Here I am, to serve you’/ ‘Labbayka’, pronounced by pilgrims while entering Arabia.

Sufi order.

Part of the hajj and ʿumra rites: the circumambulation of the Kaʿba seven times, in anti-clockwise direction. It symbolizes the approach to the House of God, as a guest, and is performed partly running and partly walking.

Compound for the quarantine of pilgrims entering or exiting Arabia in the direction of Egypt, on the eastern coast of the Sinai peninsula, from the end of the nineteenth century until 1940.

See Hamza.

(585–644) Second caliph (634–644).

Term indicating the world-wide Muslim community.

Non-obligatory pilgrimage to Mecca, also called ‘lesser pilgrimage’. In contrast to the hajj, it can be performed throughout the year. It consists of the iḥrām, the ṭawāf, the drinking of Zamzam water, and the saʿy, concluded by a partial or complete cutting of the hair. It is also part of the hajj, if it is combined with the wuqūf on the prescribed day.

See Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Wahhāb.

The main component of the hajj ritual, the standing as a congregation in the plain of ʿArafa, on 9 dhū al-ḥijja, to listen to the sermon from the Jabal al-Raḥma, after the example of the final sermon of the Prophet. It is often associated with the Last Judgement, when the believers gather to be judged.

The well situated in the Grand Mosque in Mecca. According to the tradition it was discovered by Hājar and her son Ismāʿīl, when they were exiled to the desert by Ibrāhīm, enabling the foundation of Mecca as a settlement in the desert. Many miraculous properties are ascribed to its water, such as healing properties, baraka, preventing hunger and thirst. Often pilgrims not only drink from it, but also drench themselves with it and soak their burial shrouds with it.

Sufi lodge or convent, often connected with the grave of a pious saint.

Litt. ‘visit’; more specifically a visit to the grave of a pious saint, or a visit to the tomb of Muhammad in Medina. The latter ‘visit’ is carefully described in conventions and practices. It is not part of the hajj and is discouraged by the Wahhābīs.

Midday prayer.