Historical pharmacopoeias and recipe collections are a wonderful source of research into the Middle Low German language, as well as the Northern German and Northern European culture of the Middle Ages.1 After significant prose texts from the domain of historiography as well as legal codification, the 14th–16th centuries produced an abundance of Middle Low German pharmacopoeias, herbal and medical recipe books.2 These were of great importance for both Northern German and Scandinavian regions. The majority of these medical texts originated independently of High German sources. That is to say they do not teach entirely new methods of healing. On the contrary, they can be seen as a logical continuation of the medical literature of venerable antiquity and the Middle Ages.
If one looks at the Middle Low German pharmacopoeias, recipe collections and medical instruction manuals in general, a hierarchy of ingredient importance becomes apparent. One is immediately struck by the abundance of herb- and mineral-based recipes; land-based animals and their components are also frequently used. In comparison, fish-based recipes are a rarity, which doesn’t mean that they are of less interest.
1 Introduction
The aim of this chapter is to shed light on the role of fish and its concrete use in medieval medicine.3 The chapter’s contents are sourced from the holdings of The Middle Low German Dictionary archive4 (University of Hamburg), including The Pharmacopoeia by Johan van Segen,5 The Bremen Pharmacopoeia by Arnoldus Doneldey,6 The Middle Low German Stockholm Pharmacopoeia,7 The Middle Low German Gotha Pharmacopoeia,8 The Abdinghof Pharmacopoeia,9 the Magdeburgian Promptuarium medicinae edited by Peter Seidensticker10 and many others. The following is to be defined as a kind of sub-goal: In addition to the actual recording of the fish examples in the medical recipes that have not been in the focus of research so far, the principles underlying the specific use are to be analysed. Only proper fish are to be considered as fish, i.e., other marine and freshwater animals such as dolphins, whales, cuttlefish, crabs, mussels, frogs, snails, otters and beavers which have more frequently been treated in parallel to proper fish and have most likely been partly perceived or at least declared as such – especially during fasting periods –, are excluded.11
The structure of the present chapter is organised as follows. First, a brief overview of the current state of research is given before the methodical approach of the analysis is described. Then, The Middle Low German Dictionary research section is to be briefly introduced; thereafter the reader will have the opportunity to have a look into the research text corpus. Subsequently, the research results that could be obtained with the chosen approach are presented, interpreted and compared with the state of the research. Finally, the results obtained are briefly summarised, the limitations of the study are explained and the chosen approach is critically reflected upon in retrospect.
2 Current State of Research
The medicinal use of fish and its components is the subject of a fairly manageable number of papers, whereas the role of fish or aquatic animals in general is mentioned and studied frequently in the context of medieval and early modern dietetics.12 For context, a brief overview of the current state of research with secondary sources that deal with the medicinal use of fish in order to create a basis of comparison for the main analysis of this paper follows. First, Kamal Sabri Kolta’s study focuses, among other things, on the properties and significance of fish in selected medieval Arabic texts that had not been translated at the time of the paper’s publication.13 He points out that the Arabs’ reports sometimes mentioned the medicinal use of fish. According to ad-Damiri fish would help against eyewash – presumably the lens opacity or cataract is meant here –, fish bile would be useful against heart palpitations and smelling fish would sober drunks.14 Sabri Kolta also mentions in passing that the ancient Egyptians are said to have used a certain Ꜣbḏw-fish for eye conditions, headaches and even poisoning.15 In ancient Egyptian spells, this Ꜣbḏw-fish is also recommended against children’s diseases.16 Sabri Kolta also mentions a report by Herodotus that discusses the use of fish together with milk to induce nausea and vomiting for healing purposes.17 According to Sabri Kolta, another fish (ꜤꜢḏw-fish, Flathead grey mullet, Mugil cephalus) was recommended as a remedy to solve stiffness of any kind and against greying of the hair.18 Another use as an impotency remedy together with onions is recorded by most of the authors analysed by Sabri Kolta.19 In his paper there are many more fish recipes mentioned for medicinal purposes, including for epilepsy attacks, insanity, fever, headaches, etc.20
In his short contribution, von Soden looks at fish bile as a remedy for the eyes, namely on the basis of examples from the Bible (especially the Book of Tobit) and in addition some Assyrian documents that were handed down on clay tablets at the time.21 He states that fish bile was not known as a remedy for the eyes, but that it should be drunk for diseases of the urinary tract.22
In his short article on medieval Russian medicine, Anikin also deals with fish.23 He notes that in addition to plants, land-based animals and products of animal origin, fish was also used in the treatment of diseases; for example, fish liver from sturgeon, catfish and cod was administered for night blindness.24
A particularly significant study25 for this chapter is the ethnomedical analysis by José Ramón Vallejo and José Antonio González, which looks at the historical and diachronic use of 54 fish species for medicinal purposes using the example of Spanish medical literature (52 sources in total) from Naturalis historia by Pliny the Elder26 (ca. 77 AD) to the most recent treatises by Manuel Pedro Cobo López and Raúl Elías Tijera Jiménez27 and Montse Rigat et al.28 Of the sources examined, five belong to the Middle Ages, while three others were published in the 15th–17th centuries. Vallejo and González not only try to identify each fish very specifically, which is particularly problematic with ancient and medieval sources, but also describe the internal as well as external use of the fish or its components. In addition, they try to determine and name a specific disease, i.e., diagnosis, for which fish was used as a remedy or component of a remedy, and additionally comment on the regional assignment of the respective fish evidence.29
Cécile Le Cornec deals with the (positive) properties of marine fish from the perspective of dietetics, however her work is useful for this chapter.30 Although she does not deal with the actual medicinal use of fish, she makes reference to significant medical sources from the 13th–14th centuries. In his paper, Grégory Clesse deals with aquatic animals in Arabic and Latin medical sources, attempts to classify them and also examines their use from a diachronic perspective.31 His study focuses on five translations from the 12th–13th centuries. Surely the author considers fish aquatic animals, yet they are only given little attention; and their effects are not analysed in depth. However, a general negative effect on the human body is mentioned.32
A number of other contributions focus more on medieval and early modern fish dietetics; medicinal use in the actual sense is not dealt with.33 In summary, a lot more research would be needed to make advances in this field of research.
Based on the above, no prominent presence of fish-based medical recipes is expected in the selected research corpus. It is more likely that they were used the same way they were used in older sources, such as eye diseases or problems of the urinary tract.
3 Methodical Approach
Due to the fact that in the selected research corpus a relatively low density of evidence for fish and their components is expected, a qualitative approach is the first choice. The first step is to verify which of the sources have fish mentioned. In the second step, the evidence found will be filtered by distinguishing between genuine use in a medical recipe and, for example, a general dietary recommendation (depending on the sign of the zodiac, month or phase of the moon). Subsequently, the fish mentioned in real recipes will be examined in their context of use. Thus, for each mention it will be recorded whether it is a whole fish or a specific component of a fish, and in which form it is used (fresh, dry, salted, boiled, fried, burnt to powder, etc.). Furthermore, the human organ affected and the disease or diagnosis to be treated will be noted. Finally, the underlying treatment principle (similia similibus curantur – with help from the same, contraria contrariis curantur – with help from the opposite)34 will be determined.
However, before demonstrating the research results obtained, a few words about the research section The Middle Low German Dictionary should be said; afterwards the research corpus will be presented.
4 Research Section The Middle Low German Dictionary
The Middle Low German Dictionary research section at the University of Hamburg35 has been systematically recording Middle Low German sources and documenting their vocabulary since 1923. In this way, a unique collection of documents has been created with more than one million records. This makes the Low German vocabulary from the 13th to the 17th century in the entire Hanseatic region more accessible for temporal, regional, social and functional research perspectives. In the meantime, more than 80,000 lexemes have been identified and documented. And so, the Hamburgian research section acts as a national and international information centre for enquiries about Middle Low German language and culture and publishes a dictionary of the Middle Low German language, which serves as a foundational work and research tool for numerous needs and is intended to replace the outdated dictionaries of the 19th century.
The dictionary, which was conceived as a hand-dictionary and originally planned for only three volumes, serves the following academic fields in particular:
-
(1) Linguistics and literary studies, especially for questions of historical linguistics and historical dialectology;
-
(2) The historical sciences, which are provided with a fundamental aid for working on medieval and early modern sources. A core area here is Hanseatic research, but aspects of regional history and legal history are also becoming increasingly important;
-
(3) Cultural history, sociology and ethnology.
In addition, the dictionary can also be used as a source of information by laymen interested in regional history and historical linguistics. It is also worth mentioning that The Middle Low German Dictionary additionally offers the possibility to consult the material on site and to evaluate it specifically for scientific purposes.36
It has to be mentioned that a strong presence of pragmatic texts can be found in the text corpus, which can be explained as follows: Middle Low German texts are evidence of a differentiating (Hanseatic) urban culture, so that the conditions of medieval and early modern communication are also reflected in the lexis. The main areas of communication are trade, urban institutions, political and legal networks, crafts and artes, Church and spiritual life, instruction – edification – and entertainment as well as individual and collective self-assurance, and of course the medical field is also included.37
5 Research Corpus
There are 19 pharmacopoeias and promptuaries that were used as medical sources for The Middle Low German Dictionary, that also form the basis for this chapter. They are listed in alphabetical order according to their project internal short form38 which is given in bold below. The information provided is limited to the locations of the respective manuscripts, incunabula and old prints, which can be found next to the reference to the year or the century they were finished or printed in. Further background detail on the editions, partial editions and studies used in the project and the current chapter can be found in the corresponding footnotes.
A. v. B. = Albrecht van Borgunnien’s Treatise on Medicine, London, British Museum, Sloane Ms. 3002, 15th century.39
Abdingh. Arzneib. = The Abdinghof Pharmacopoeia, Paderborn, Archiepiscopal Academic Library, Theodoriana VVa 3, mid till end of the 15th century.40
Aquae med. ed. Lindgren = The Aquae Medicinales from The Middle Low German Gotha Pharmacopoeia, Gotha, University and Research Library Erfurt – Gotha, Cod. Chart. A 980, shortly before 1400.41
Bartholomaeus Practica = Bartholomaeus’ Practica, Gotha, University and Research Library Erfurt – Gotha, Cod. Chart. A 980, end of the 14th century.42
Boek d. Wundenartzstedye ed. Benati = Boek der Wundenartzstedye, the Low German translation of Hieronymus Brunschwig’s Buch der Cirurgia, Berlin, Berlin State Library – Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, Jg 3484; Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern State Library Günther Uecker, HSt VII 745, anno 1518.43
Brem. Arzneib. = The Bremen Pharmacopoeia by Arnoldus Doneldey, Hannover, State Archive, Ms. AA 16, anno 1382.44
Bresl. Arzneibuch = The Wrocław Pharmacopoeia, Wrocław, University Library, Cod. R. 291, 1st quarter of the 14th century.45
Goth. Arzneib. = The Middle Low German Gotha Pharmacopoeia,46 Gotha, University and Research Library Erfurt – Gotha, Cod. Chart. A 980, shortly before 1400.47
J. v. Segen = The Pharmacopoeia by Johan van Segen, Stockholm, Royal Library of Sweden, MS medic. XII 114, anno 1487.48
Kopenh. Arzneib. ed. Lindgren = The Copenhagen Pharmacopoeia, Copenhagen, Royal Danish Library, GKS Cod. 1663.4, end of the 15th century.49
Leipzig. Bartholomaeus = The German Bartholomaeus from Leipzig, Leipzig, University Library, MS 0816, beginning of the 15th century.50
Ljungqvist Arzn. = The Middle Low German Pharmacopoeia from Codex Guelferbytanus 1213 Helmstediensis, Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Library, Cod. Guelf. 1213 Helmst., mid till end of the 15th century.51
Nd. Jb. 15: Utr. Arzneib. = The Middle Low German Utrecht Pharmacopoeia, Utrecht, University Library, Ms. 1355 (6 H 23), end of the 14th century – beginning of the 15th century.52
Prompt. med. ed. Seidensticker = Promptuarium medicinae, Berlin, Berlin State Library – Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, 4° Inc 1488.20; Bethesda (MD), National Library of Medicine, WZ 230 P989 1483; Copenhagen, Royal Danish Library, Inc. Haun. 3383; Göttingen, State and University Library of Lower Saxony, 4 MAT MED 34/76 INC; Hamburg, State and University Library Carl von Ossietzky, KB 503; London, British Library, IB.10909; Moscow, Russian State Library, MK Inc.2.135; San Marino (CA), Huntington Library, 90921; St. Petersburg, Russian National Library, 9.11/12.1.23; Stockholm, Royal Library of Sweden, MFBL 98:7; Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Library, A: 51.3 Med. 2°, anno 1483.53
Regel = The Middle Low German Gotha Pharmacopoeia and its plant names, Gotha, University and Research Library Erfurt – Gotha, Cod. Chart. A 980, end of the 14th century.54
Röder = Nütte lere vnd vnderricht […] We men sick in duͤssen gefarlicken Steruendes luͤfften holden / vnde vor der giff=tigen Pestilentzischen suͤcke bewaren schall […], Hamburg, State and University Library Carl von Ossietzky, Scrin A/258; Kiel, University Library, 2 an MK 4499, anno 1565.55
Stockh. Arzneib. = The Middle Low German Stockholm Pharmacopoeia, Stockholm, Royal Library of Sweden, Ms. X 113, 2nd half of the 15th century.56
Utr. Arzneib. ed. Lindgren = The Utrecht Pharmacopoeia, Utrecht, University Library, Ms. 1355, 16°, around 1400.57
Wolfenb. Arzneib. = The Middle Low German Wolfenbüttel Pharmacopoeia, Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Library, Cod. [Guelf.] 23.3 Aug. 4°, around 1450.58
The reader has probably already noticed in the presentation of the sources that certain pharmacopoeias are listed several times. This is mainly due to the fact that the corresponding manuscripts have come into the focus of medievalist research several times – and from different perspectives – and have accordingly also entered the corpus of The Middle Low German Dictionary as sources in the updated version. Some of the works mentioned contain editions or partial editions, while others concentrate exclusively on individual aspects of the respective manuscripts or provide word lists or glossaries, which were very helpful at the excerption phase of the project.
After a first thorough review of the sources, however, it was found that not all manuscripts, incunabula and old prints in the corpus contain fish mentions for medicinal purposes. Thus, the 15th-century pharmacopoeia from the Abdinghof monastery,59 The Aquae Medicinales analysed and edited by Lindgren,60 Bartholomaeus’ Practica61 and The German Bartholomaeus from Leipzig,62 Boek der Wundenartzstedye by Hieronymus Brunschwig,63 pharmacopoeias from Bremen,64 Copenhagen,65 Utrecht,66 Wolfenbüttel67 and Wrocław68 make no mention of fish or its constituents in the recipes, so the final corpus of investigation is considerably smaller. In a number of the remaining sources examined, fish is mentioned in dietary recommendations, e.g., in The Middle Low German Pharmacopoeia from the Codex Guelferbytanus 1213 Helmstadiensis,69 Promptuarium medicinae,70 the 16th-century pest prevention guide by Sebastian Röder71 and partly in The Middle Low German Stockholm Pharmacopoeia,72 but these will not be discussed in this chapter.
6 Research Results
In the selected research corpus, 23 medical recipes were found in which fish or its ingredients were used. Although a qualitative approach is taken in the study, it is nevertheless quite obvious that fresh eel bile occurs most frequently (7 times). In The Middle Low German Gotha Pharmacopoeia fresh eel bile is recommended for “watery eyes” (ocular mucous membrane inflammation?), but also for corneal staining after an inflammatory eye disease:
Weme de oghen vele tranen, de neme enes versschen ales gallen, yserhart vnde vennekelswortelen, make desse krude schone, stot se vnde wrink denne dat sap darvth vnde menghe de gallen darto vnde laet yd tohope wol warm werden vnde syget denne dor enen dok in ene bussen vnde besmere de ogen darmede.73
If you have frequent watering eyes, take the gall of a fresh eel, verbena and fennel root[s], wash these herbs, crush them and then squeeze the juice out of them and mix it with the gall; and let it get warm together and strain it through a cloth into a vessel and smear the eyes with it.74
Jtem nym enes hazen gallen vnde enes ales gallen vnde enes hanen gallen vnde menghe de dree gallen tohope vnde menge dar so vele honnyges zo also van den dren gallen wert vnde laet dat tohope wol warm werden vp deme vure vnde drope des wat in de ogen: dat vordrifft dat mael.75
Take the gall of a hare and the gall of an eel and the gall of a cock and mix the three galls together and add as much honey as you have of the galls and let it become well heated together upon fire and drop some of it into the eyes; it will drive away the staining.
Furthermore, in the same pharmacopoeia, eel bile is mentioned as a remedy for watery or bleeding eyes and for swellings76 – a specific body part is not mentioned here:
Weme de oghen rynnen van watere efte van blode, […] so nym ales gallen vnde sap van ysenharte vnde sap van vennekoleswortelen vnde menghe dat tosamende by deme vure vnde syge yt denne dor enen lynen dok vnde do et in eyn blyen vaet vnde strik yt denne buten vmme de oghen, so werden se droghe.77
To whom the eyes run with water or blood; […] take the gall of an eel and the juice of verbena and the juice of fennel root and mix them together by fire and then strain it through a linen cloth and put it into a leaden vessel and then spread it round the outside of the eyes; and they will become dry.
Johan van Segen also records the use of eel bile for aphasia after a blow to the head or for concussion of the brain, as well as for sty:
Item, der op den cop geslagen ist, dat he nycht sprechen en kan, dem gŭit [sic!] jn de oren von j ale de galle, getempert myt frauwenmylch.78
Furthermore, he who has been struck on the head so that he cannot speak, give into his ears the gall of an eel tempered with woman’s milk.
Nym eynnes hannen gal vnd de gal van eym ale vnd make se warm myt der butter, de vngesalten sij. Do darto huinch [sic!]. Menge dat tohaufe jn ein copperen vat. Darmyt bestrich de awen, de dar ser sint den awent. Sige et dur eyn duch.79
Take the gall of a cock and the gall of an eel and make them warm with butter that is unsalted. Add honey. Mix this together in a copper vessel. In the evening, spread it on the eyes that are affected. Strain it through a cloth.
Finally, eel bile mixed with chicken bile, hare bile, water and honey is used in The Middle Low German Stockholm Pharmacopoeia as a remedy for an unspecified eye disease:
[…], so nym de ghallen van eynem hanen vnde de gallen van eynem ale vnde de ghallen van eynem hasen vnde menge se myt renem warmen watere vnde myt honnighe vnde do dat in eyn kopperuat, vnde alse do to bedde geist, so bestryk dine oghen dar mede eyn lutting, so warden se di alto hant schon vnde klar.80
[…], so, take the gall of a cock and the gall of an eel and the gall of a hare and mix them with pure warm water and with honey and put that into a copper vessel; and when you go to bed coat your eyes with it a little; and they will become sharp [in sight; comment. S.T.] and clear to you immediately.
As one can easily see, eel bile is used especially for eye ailments. One can certainly be sceptical about the pharmaceutical effect of bile, as Matiegkova81 does, for example, but fish bile as a remedy for eyes has been known for longer (there are some ancient Greek and ancient Egyptian sources as well as clay tablets in cuneiform writing, etc.).
Now let us look at the different uses of fish oil and especially fish oil from eel. This is suggested as a remedy in the Albrecht van Borgunnien’s Treatise on Medicine in the case of eye opacity taken together with honey and aloe juice and in the case of middle ear inflammation together with houseleek (Sempervivum tectorum or Sempervivum globiferum).
Nym dat vette van enem verschen vische, make dat warm vnd do dar to en cleyne honniges vnde aloes, lat id tosamende seden vnde schume id wol, drope dat clare in de ogen, dat helpet sere.82
Take the fat from a fresh eel, make it warm and add some honey and [the juice of the] aloe [plant], let it boil together and skim it [the scum; comment. S.T.] off properly, drip this clear into the eyes; this helps a lot.
De nicht wol høren kan. De neme huslok vnde drucke dat sap vth vnde neme dat vette van enem witten verschen ale, do dyt to hope vnde make it warm vnde drope des enen dropen in dat ore, dat helpet.83
To whom who cannot hear well. Take houseleek and squeeze out the juice and take the fat from a fresh white eel, put it together and make it warm and drop a drop of it into the ear; that helps.
The Middle Low German Gotha Pharmacopoeia mentions fish oil from eel in a recipe dealing with the treatment of otitis media (used again together with houseleek):
Stot huslok vnde wringk dat sap vth, vnde do darto dat vette van deme ale vnde make id warm. To deme ersten male | drope dat in dat beste ore vnde kere dat sulue ore vpwart, dat yd wol indrincke; des anderen dages edder des nachtes so do yd in dat andere ore vnde kere id ok vp; des drudden dages so do yt in dat erste ore, darna do yt in dat andere ore. Dyt do so lange bet du gesunt werst.84
Grind houseleek and wring out the juice and add the fat from an eel and make it warm. For the first time, drop it into the best [probably: the healthier; comment. S.T.] ear and turn it upwards so that it absorbs the liquid; the next day or night, put it into the other ear and turn it upwards; on the third day, put it into the first ear, then into the other ear. And do this until you get well.
Eel as a whole is attested in a prescription for inflammation of the middle ear due to water in the ears in The Pharmacopoeia by Johan van Segen. The following is recommended:
[…] neme eyn fetten alle; vnd bestrich den myt salt vnd brait en, als men etten sulde. Wan dat water daraf getrofen is, so do dat fette darvan; vnd nemen [sic!] dan cipollen; vnd machen [sic!] eyn lach darjn vnd do dat fette darjn. Brade de cipolle, dat se weich werde, vnd brinck et dan dur eyn reyn duch vnd do dat warm jn den oren.85
[…] take a fat eel; and coat it with salt and fry it as it should be eaten. When water has formed on it, take the fat from it; and then take onions; and make a bed in it and add the fat to it. Fry the onion until it becomes soft; and then put it through a clean cloth and put it warm in the ears.
Other fish species are also attested in the selected research corpus. For example, ruffe is mentioned in The Middle Low German Gotha Pharmacopoeia and is recommended alongside pike for the disease with four-day recurring fevers and cold sweats (quartana), although this evidence borders very closely on a dietary recommendation:
Wen desse suke warende is, de holde syn ethent aldus: et grone swynenvleisch, junghe hunre, hennen de wol gesaden synt myt speke, mer dat speck eneth nicht. Jtem eth kamen, zafferan, negelken, annys, wetenbroet, culebarse vnde hekede.86
If the disease persists for a long time, the affected person should maintain his eating habits as follows: Eat green [i.e., fresh; comment. S.T.] pork, young chickens, hens that are well boiled with lard, but do not eat the lard. Furthermore, eat cumin, saffron, cloves, star anise, wheat bread, ruffe and pike.
However, since no dependence on the lunar cycle, zodiac sign or season was recognised here, these two examples can still be categorized as medicinal uses.
Fish that are not specified are mentioned in the Magdeburgian Promptuarium medicinae for jaundice87 and for melancholy and so-called loin weakness (in German: Lendenschwäche) – presumably meaning the English disease, i.e., potency problems. The second instruction in particular is described in great detail:
Bystu uele swarmodich mydt vele dancken iffte swaren melancoli=en ock swarten kolre edder heffstu de lenden sucke van vele vuchticheit des flecma so sut polipodium mit annysze vnde sede dat in sode dar erst vissche edder honre ynne ghesoden synt do dar sucker tho icht du one heffst vnde drinck dat auent vnde morghen warm.88
If you are melancholic with [too] many thoughts, or heavy melancholy, or black bile, or if you have loin weakness from the excess of moisture of the phlegm, boil polipodium [a type of fern; comment. S.T.] with star anise; and boil that in the stock where fish or chicken were first boiled, add sugar to it; and drink that while it’s still warm in the evening and in the morning.
Not only fish oil is used as an ingredient in the recipes, but also a number of other fish parts. For example, fresh fish guts are prepared in The Middle Low German Gotha Pharmacopoeia to battle the clouding of the lens in the eye, i.e., scotoma (in German: Augenschimmel), prepared as follows:
Jtem nim dat versche butte van eneme vissche warm gemaket vnde do darto eyn cleyne honnyges vnde olyes vnde lat dat tosamende smelten vnde schumret wol vnde drope des wat in de ogen.89
Furthermore, take fresh fish guts made warm and add a little honey and oil and let it all melt together and skim off [any scum] properly and drip some [of the mixture] into the eyes.
In contrast, the skin of stockfish (cod) is used in The Pharmacopoeia by Johan van Segen as a cooling plaster for inflammatory wounds:
So saltu neme j stackfuschhut [sic!] vnd seden de jn water vnd schum dat rein. Nym dan de hut vnd lege se of de wonde vnd ker de witte sitte negest.90
So, you shall take a stockfish skin and boil it in water and remove the scum that has formed. Then take the [stockfish] skin and place it on the wound and turn the white side closer [to the wound].
Pike gills are included in the same pharmacopoeia as a corsif ingredient:
Eyn ander corsif. Nym gebranten allun vnd run halwort. Stot dat tosamen. Do darto de kynbacken van dem hechte; de lege jn win /xvj/ xiiij stunden. Dan so bern se to pulwer. Dat menge tosamen. Do darto spangrŭn.91
Another corsif. Take burnt alum and round-leaved birthwort. Pound that together. Add pike gills; soak them in wine for /16/ 14 hours. Then burn them to powder. Mix all this together. Add blue vitriol.
Bones of salted fish burnt to powder and fish-bone powder, among others from pike, are mentioned in The Middle Low German Gotha Pharmacopoeia in a recipe against intestinal prolapse and umbilical hernia:
Js de nauel vthgheghaen edder de pagderme, vnde synt se noch warm, | js yt de pagdarm, so schere er dat haer af by der schemede vnde legghe se to bedde vnde laet se myt deme sterte hoger ligghen wen myt deme houede, vnde make denne eyn dingk het vp deme vure dat het apostolicon vnde bestrick de hant darmede edder myt boemolye vnde steck ene wedder yn, vnde stot wedewinden vnde drucke dat sap vth vnde nym dat sap vnde allun vnde hart vnde sede dyt myt honnighe edder myt lynolye vnde myt weken peke vnde laet dyt tohope seden vnde stot sweuel kleyne vnde do den darto vnde legghe dat so warm darvp vnde bestrick dat hol myt blode vnde berne graden | van enen solten vissche to asschen vnde strouwe de darvp.92
If the navel is open, or the rectum, and they are still warm, if it is the rectum, shear off the hair by her [the patient’s; comment. S.T.] pubic region and lay her on the bed; and let her lie with her rump higher than with her head; and then heat a thing, that is called apostolion, and coat a hand with it or with tree oil [probably: olive oil; comment. S.T.] and put it [the rectum; comment. S.T.] inside again; and pound bindweed and squeeze out the juice from it; and take the juice and alum and resin and boil that together with honey or with linseed oil and with soft pitch and boil that together and pound sulphur made small and add that to it and put that on it while it’s still warm and coat the hole with blood and burn bones from a salted fish to ashes and sprinkle those on it.
According to Johan van Segen they are helpful against fistulas, i.e., deep tubular ulcers:
De vnnaturlichen meister haint [sic!] de gewonheit, dat se snydent de fistel vit vnd maken se wit myt der /vijr/ kunst, de se dŭn, vordriwen den menschen vnd hain [sic!] ein gewonheit dat to dun myt sterkem pulwer, als herna geschriwen steit. Dit pulwer saltu machen also: Nym funderatum vnd blee gebrant to pulwer vnd fischebeinpulwer vnd gledepulwer vnd hechtesbeinpulwer, bligwitpulwer. Dat mache allet tosamen – vnd nym eyns so vil als des anderen – vnd streuwe dat pulwer jn de wonde vnd jn schaden, de da flissent.93
The unnatural masters are in the habit of cutting open the fistula and making it wide with the help of the art of fire, which they do, expel the man, and have a habit of doing this with a strong powder, as is described hereafter. This powder you shall make as follows: take funderatum and lead burnt to powder and fish-bone powder and limb powder and pike-bone powder, white lead powder. Put them all together and take of one as much as of the other and sprinkle the powder on the wound and on the noxious substance that flows there.
In the case of cystitis and uncontrolled urination, Albrecht van Borgunnien recommends fresh unpreserved fish bladders burnt to powder and added to wine, beer or, better, vinegar:
Nym versche vischeblasen, berne de to puluere vnde dat puluer do in wine efte in bere vnde drinke dat. Noch were it beter in etike gedrunken. Vnde drinke dat ene weken vmme.94
Take fresh fish bladders, burn them to powder and put this powder into wine or into beer and drink it. It would be even better drunken in vinegar. And drink it for a week.
The last example to be mentioned isn’t really a reference to fish itself, because it is about the water in which fish was washed. According to The Middle Low German Gotha Pharmacopoeia, this water was used for the treatment of fistulas:
Wedder de fistelen, dat ys eyn swer | mit enen engen munde vnde myt wyden grunden. De bekenne hirby: dar geit wytte vulnisse vth alzo water dat visch ynne gewasschen sy vnde breket dor de aderen, vnde dar geit ok swarte vulnisse vth.95
Against the fistulas; that is an ulcer with a narrow mouth and with wide grounds. The person recognises here: white putrefaction comes out, that is, water in which fish has been washed; and break it through the veins, so [that] black putrefaction also comes out.
7 Interpretation
A closer look revealed that in all but one recipe, the fish and its components were thermally processed before they could be administered. In most recipes, fresh fish or fresh fish bile, fish guts, etc. are first mixed with other ingredients (honey, water, butter, woman’s milk, other bile types, herbs, herbal juices, etc.) and then heated or even boiled. In a number of recipes, fish bones – whether from fresh or salted fish – or even fish bladders are first burnt to powder or ash and only used afterwards. Pike gills are first soaked in wine for several hours (14) and only then burnt to powder and used further. Only in one recipe the eel bile isn’t heated. This is an ointment recipe to help with swellings. Here, the eel bile is soaked in a mixture of tartar and vinegar for several days (four or more) and then not further processed:
Aldus make ene salue jeghen alle swelle: nym eyn punt wynstenes de reyne sy, vnde beneye den in eme | doke vnde legghe dat denne in guden etick vnde laet dat stan ouer ene nacht vnde legghe ed denne in gloiende ameren ij stunde van enen daghe vnde nym ed denne vt vnde legghe yt denne an anderen etick. Dyt do drie ouer vnde do yt denne in eyn kupperen vat vnde do darto gallen van alen vnde laet ed so stan iiij dage efte mer, dat wert gude | salue to allen swellen vorwar.96
In this way, make an ointment against all types of swellings: take a pound of tartar that is pure and sew it up in a cloth and then put it into a good vinegar and let it stand about a night; and then put it into the burning ashes for two hours during the day and then take it out again and put it into another vinegar again. Repeat this three times and then put it in a copper vessel and add eel bile and let it stand for four days or more; this will be a good ointment for all swellings indeed.
If we look at the modes of use and action of the remedies in the recipes studied and the relevant fish ingredients, we primarily find examples of the contraria contrariis curantur principle of traditional humoral pathology; which was the leading principle from Galen until the development of modern medicine and homeopathy. In part, some uses can be seen more as examples of the similia similibus curantur principle, but neither in the homeopathic nor in the classical humoral pathological sense (here I refer in particular to the prescription of fish bladder for cystitis and uncontrolled urination). According to humoral pathology, fish is considered “cold” and “moist”, so it is obvious that it is used for inflammatory – “fiery” – diseases, but also in the form of cooling plasters. The perceived excessive coldness could be reduced by the heating process or boiling, if necessary, and the moist attribute would still remain. Finally, one should not forget that most of the remedies described were applied externally, directly to the affected area (eyes, ears, wounds, swollen body parts) and not internally, e.g., orally. Thus, no direct comparison is possible between the mode of action of fish as a food (in dietetics) and of fish as a component of a remedy.
8 Conclusion
In conclusion, as hypothesized, fish-based medical recipes are marginally represented in the selected research corpus. However, the uses of fish and its components are not limited to the already known and more frequently recorded eye diseases and diseases of the urinary tract, but we find a much broader spectrum of uses, such as for aphasia, middle-ear inflammation, inflammatory wounds, fistulas, intestinal prolapse, loin weakness (impotency), etc. As expected, the main underlying treatment principle for the uses of fish and its various components has emerged as the contraria contrariis curantur principle of traditional humoral pathology; which was the leading principle in the Middle Ages and the early modern period.
For further research, it would be undoubtedly useful to take a closer look at all available Middle Low German pharmacopoeias, herbal books and recipe books in order to be able to make generalised statements and possibly discover further uses of the fish and its components that were previously unknown to science. Due to the exclusive restriction of the research corpus to the sources of The Middle Low German Dictionary, and thus to a clear amount of evidence, it is unfortunately not possible to make any generally valid statements. Nevertheless, even after such an exemplary analysis, it can be stated that this kind of preliminary research may be fruitful. For example, some uses – especially of fish bones or pike gills – were found that were previously unknown to scholars.
Bibliography
Primary Sources
Albrecht [van Borgunnien], Albrecht van Borgunnien’s Treatise on Medicine (Sloane Ms. 3002, British Museum), ed. W.L. Wardale (London – Edinburgh – Glasgow: 1936).
Alstermark H., Das Arzneibuch des Johan van Segen (Stockholm: 1977).
Bartholomaeus [Salernitanus], Angebliche practica des Bartholomaeus von Salerno, Schüler des Constantinus Salernitanus. Introductiones et experimenta magistri Bartholomaei in practicam Hippocratis Galieni Constantini graecorum medicorum. Papier-Handschrift der herzogl. Sachs.-Coburg-Gothaischen Bibliothek, No. 920, fol. 85a bis 104b, ed. F. von Oefele (Bad Neuenahr: 1894).
Brunschwig Hieronymus, Dat Boek der Wundenartzstedye und der niederdeutsche chirurgische Fachwortschatz, ed. Ch. Benati (Göppingen: 2012).
Das Breslauer Arzneibuch [R 291 der Stadtbibliothek], ed. C. Külz – E. Külz-Trosse (Dresden: 1908).
Das Promptuarium medicinae. [Eyn schone Arstedyge boeck van allerleye ghebreck unnde kranckheyden der mynschen], ed. P. Seidensticker nach d. Ausg. Magdeburg: 1483 (Lahr: 1990).
Das Utrechter Arzneibuch (Ms. 1355, 16°, Bibliotheek der Rijksuniversiteit Utrecht), ed. A. Lindgren (Stockholm: 1977).
Doneldey Arnoldus, Das Bremer mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch des Arnoldus Doneldey. Mit Einleitung und Glossar, ed. E. Windler (Neumünster: 1932).
Gallée J.H., “Mittelniederdeutsches Arzneibuch”, Jahrbuch des Vereins für niederdeutsche Sprachforschung 15 (1889) 105–149.
Graeter Chr., Ein Leipziger deutscher Bartholomaeus (Borna-Leipzig: 1918).
Lindgren A., Ein Stockholmer mittelniederdeutsches Arzneibuch aus der zweiten Hälfte des 15. Jahrhunderts (Stockholm – Gothenburg – Uppsala: 1967).
Lindgren A., Die ‘aquae medicinales’ des mittelniederdeutschen Gothaer Arzneibuches (Stockholm: 1979).
Lindgren A., “Ein Kopenhagener mittelniederdeutsches Arzneibuch aus dem Ende des 15. Jahrhunderts”, Würzburger medizinhistorische Mitteilungen 4 (1986) 135–178.
Ljungqvist I., Das mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch des Codex Guelferbytanus 1213 Helmstadiensis (Stockholm: 1971).
Norrbom S.E., Das Gothaer mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch und seine Sippe (Hamburg: 1921).
Regel K., “Das mittelniederdeutsche Gothaer Arzneibuch und seine Pflanzennamen”, Programm des Herzoglichen Gymnasium Ernestinum zu Gotha 1 (1872) [1]–16, 2 (1873) 1–26.
Regel K., “Zwei mnd. Arzneibücher, Cod. Chart. Goth. 980 und Cod. Wolfenb. 23,3.”, Jahrbuch des Vereins für niederdeutsche Sprachforschung 4 (1878) 5–26.
Röder Sebastian, Nütte lere vnd vnderricht Doct. Sebastiani Roͤder/ Jdtzundes alhier tho Hamborch/ We men sick in duͤssen gefarlicken Steruendes luͤfften holden/ vnde vor der giff=tigen Pestilentzischen suͤcke bewaren schall/ dat men dar vör seker wesen/ vnd nicht darmit beflecket warden mach/ edder sick jo dar van erredden moͤge (Hamburg, Johann Wickradt: 1565).
Temmen M., Das ‘Abdinghofer Arzneibuch’. Edition und Untersuchung einer Handschrift mittelniederdeutscher Fachprosa (Cologne – Weimar – Vienna: 2006).
Secondary Sources
Albala K., “Fish in Renaissance Dietary Theory”, in Walker H. (ed.), Fish. Food from the Waters. Proceedings of the Oxford symposium on food and cookery 1997 (Oxford: 1998) 9–19.
Borchling C., “Zur mittelniederdeutschen Medicin”, Korrespondenzblatt des Vereins für niederdeutsche Sprachforschung 22.5 (1901) 69–71.
Borchling C., “Die mittelniederdeutschen Arzneibücher”, Janus 7 (1902) 131–134, 175–179, 245–251.
Borchling C., “Zur Handschriftenkunde der mittelniederdeutschen Medizin und Naturwissenschaft”, Mitteilungen zur Geschichte der Medizin und der Naturwissenschaften 1 (1902) 66–70.
Buxton M., “Fish-Eating in Medieval England”, in Walker H. (ed.), Fish. Food from the Waters. Proceedings of the Oxford symposium on food and cookery 1997 (Oxford: 1998) 51–59.
Clesse G., “Animaux aquatiques dans les sources médicales arabo-latines: continuités et discontinuités d’un discours”, Médiévales 80.1 (2021) 81–98.
Cobo López M.P. – Tijera Jiménez R.E., Etnozoología de Doñana (Sevilla: 2013).
Hoffmann R.C., “A brief history of aquatic resource use in medieval Europe”, Helgoland Marine Research 59 (2005) 22–30.
Keil G., “Randnotizen zum ‘Stockholmer Arzneibuch’”, Studia Neophilologica 44 (1972) 238–262.
Le Cornec C., “Les vertus diététiques attribuées aux poissons de mer”, in Connochie-Bourgne Ch. (ed.), Mondes marins du Moyen Âge (Aix-en-Provence: 2006) 273–284.
Matiegkova L., “Tierbestandteile in den altägyptischen Arzneien”, Archiv Orientálni 26 (1958) 529–560.
Maycock P.P. Jr., “Introduction to the Second Edition”, in Buchanan S. (ed.), The Doctrine of Signatures: A Defence of Theory in Medicine (Urbana, IL: 1991) xv–xxix.
Möhn D., “Vorwort zu Bd. II/1”, in Mittelniederdeutsches Handwörterbuch, ed. A. Lasch – C. Borchling – G. Cordes – D. Möhn – I. Schröder (Kiel – Hamburg: 1928 ff.) vol. II/1, I–XIII.
Möhn D. – Schröder I., “Lexikologie und Lexikographie des Mittelniederdeutschen”, in Besch W. – Reichmann O. – Sonderegger S. (eds.), Sprachgeschichte. Ein Handbuch zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und ihrer Erforschung, vol. 2.2 (Berlin – New York: 2000) 1435–1456.
Oefele F. von, “Zur mittelniederdeutschen Medizin”, Korrespondenzblatt des Vereins für niederdeutsche Sprachforschung 22.4 (1901) 49–50.
Rigat M. – Vallès J. – Iglésias J. – Garnatje T., “Traditional and alternative natural therapeutic products used in the treatment of respiratory tract infectious diseases in the eastern Catalan Pyrenees (Iberian Peninsula)”, Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148.2 (2013) 411–422.
Sabri Kolta K., “Der Fisch im Volksglauben und in der Medizin der Araber”, Deutsches Schiffahrtsarchiv 1 (1975) 211–215.
Schröder I., “Niederdeutsch, niederdeutsche Sprache”, in HanseLexikon (HansLex), ed. Hansischer Geschichtsverband, online at https://www.hansischergeschichtsverein.de/lexikon, accessed on November 27, 2022.
Schröder I. – Tsapaeva S., “Komplexe Semantik im mittelniederdeutschen Wörterbuch”, in Harm V. – Lobenstein-Reichmann A. – Diehl G. (eds.), Wortwelten. Lexikographie, historische Semantik und Kulturwissenschaft (Berlin – Boston: 2019) 177–202.
Soden W. von, “Fischgalle als Heilmittel für Augen”, in Soden W. von – Müller H.-P. (eds.), Bibel und Alter Orient (Berlin – Boston: 1985) 76–77.
Temmen M., Die medizinische Rezepthandschrift Burgsteinfurt Hs. 15. Edition und Untersuchung einer Handschrift aus dem 16. Jahrhundert (Bielefeld: 1998).
Ullmann M., Islamic Medicine (Edinburgh: 1997).
Vallejo J.R. – González J.A., “Fish-based remedies in Spanish ethnomedicine: a review from a historical perspective”, Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 10.37 (2014) 1–31.
Wickersheimer E., “Zur spätmittelalterlichen Fischdiätetik: Deutsche Texte aus dem 15. Jahrhundert”, Sudhoffs Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin und der Naturwissenschaften 47.3 (1963) 411–416.
Аникин И.Л., “Некоторые методы лечения, применявшиеся в средневековой русской медицине”, AMHR 1.20 (1992) 134–143.
Borchling C., “Zur mittelniederdeutschen Medicin”, Korrespondenzblatt des Vereins für niederdeutsche Sprachforschung 22.5 (1901) 69–71; Idem, “Die mittelniederdeutschen Arzneibücher”, Janus 7 (1902) 131–134, 175–179, 245–251; Idem, “Zur Handschriftenkunde der mittelniederdeutschen Medizin und Naturwissenschaft”, Mitteilungen zur Geschichte der Medizin und der Naturwissenschaften 1 (1902) 66–70; Keil G., “Randnotizen zum ‘Stockholmer Arzneibuch’”, Studia Neophilologica 44 (1972) 238–262; Lindgren A., Ein Stockholmer mittelniederdeutsches Arzneibuch aus der zweiten Hälfte des 15. Jahrhunderts (Stockholm – Gothenburg – Uppsala: 1967); Idem, “Ein Kopenhagener mittelniederdeutsches Arzneibuch aus dem Ende des 15. Jahrhunderts”, Würzburger medizinhistorische Mitteilungen 4 (1986) 135–178; Oefele F. von, “Zur mittelniederdeutschen Medizin”, Korrespondenzblatt des Vereins für niederdeutsche Sprachforschung 22.4 (1901) 49–50; Temmen M., Die medizinische Rezepthandschrift Burgsteinfurt Hs. 15. Edition und Untersuchung einer Handschrift aus dem 16. Jahrhundert (Bielefeld: 1998); Idem, Das ‘Abdinghofer Arzneibuch’. Edition und Untersuchung einer Handschrift mittelniederdeutscher Fachprosa (Cologne – Weimar – Vienna: 2006).
Albrecht [van Borgunnien], Albrecht van Borgunnien’s Treatise on Medicine (Sloane Ms. 3002, British Museum), ed. W.L. Wardale (London – Edinburgh – Glasgow: 1936); Alstermark H., Das Arzneibuch des Johan van Segen (Stockholm: 1977); Bartholomaeus [Salernitanus], Angebliche practica des Bartholomaeus von Salerno, Schüler des Constantinus Salernitanus. Introductiones et experimenta magistri Bartholomaei in practicam Hippocratis Galieni Constantini graecorum medicorum. Papier-Handschrift der herzogl. Sachs.-Coburg-Gothaischen Bibliothek, No. 920, fol. 85a bis 104b, ed. F. von Oefele (Bad Neuenahr: 1894); Brunschwig Hieronymus, Dat Boek der Wundenartzstedye und der niederdeutsche chirurgische Fachwortschatz, ed. Ch. Benati (Göppingen: 2012); Das Breslauer Arzneibuch [R 291 der Stadtbibliothek], ed. C. Külz – E. Külz-Trosse (Dresden: 1908); Das Promptuarium medicinae. [Eyn schone Arstedyge boeck van allerleye ghebreck unnde kranckheyden der mynschen], ed. P. Seidensticker nach d. Ausg. Magdeburg: 1483 (Lahr: 1990); Das Utrechter Arzneibuch (Ms. 1355, 16°, Bibliotheek der Rijksuniversiteit Utrecht), ed. A. Lindgren (Stockholm: 1977); Doneldey Arnoldus, Das Bremer mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch des Arnoldus Doneldey. Mit Einleitung und Glossar, ed. E. Windler (Neumünster: 1932); Gallée J.H., “Mittelniederdeutsches Arzneibuch”, Jahrbuch des Vereins für niederdeutsche Sprachforschung 15 (1889) 105–149; Graeter Chr., Ein Leipziger deutscher Bartholomaeus (Borna-Leipzig: 1918); Lindgren, Ein Stockholmer mittelniederdeutsches Arzneibuch; Idem, “Ein Kopenhagener mittelniederdeutsches Arzneibuch”; Ljungqvist I., Das mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch des Codex Guelferbytanus 1213 Helmstadiensis (Stockholm: 1971); Norrbom S.E., Das Gothaer mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch und seine Sippe (Hamburg: 1921); Regel K., “Das mittelniederdeutsche Gothaer Arzneibuch und seine Pflanzennamen”, Programm des Herzoglichen Gymnasium Ernestinum zu Gotha 1 (1872) [1]–16, 2 (1873) 1–26; Idem, “Zwei mnd. Arzneibücher, Cod. Chart. Goth. 980 und Cod. Wolfenb. 23,3.”, Jahrbuch des Vereins für niederdeutsche Sprachforschung 4 (1878) 5–26; Röder Sebastian, Nütte lere vnd vnderricht Doct. Sebastiani Roͤder/ Jdtzundes alhier tho Hamborch/ We men sick in duͤssen gefarlicken Steruendes luͤfften holden/ vnde vor der giff=tigen Pestilentzischen suͤcke bewaren schall/ dat men dar vör seker wesen/ vnd nicht darmit beflecket warden mach/ edder sick jo dar van erredden moͤge (Hamburg, Johann Wickradt: 1565); Temmen, Die medizinische Rezepthandschrift Burgsteinfurt Hs. 15; Idem, Das ‘Abdinghofer Arzneibuch’.
This chapter is a slightly modified version of the talk given on September 16, 2022 at the International Congress of the Société Internationale Renardienne held at the University of Antwerp (Belgium) and entitled “Of Foxes and Fish: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Medieval Animal Lore and its Afterlife”.
Cf. Mittelniederdeutsches Wörterbuch, online at https://www.slm.uni-hamburg.de/niederdeutsch/ueber-die-abteilung/mittelniederdeutsches-wb.htm, accessed on November 27, 2022.
Alstermark, Das Arzneibuch des Johan van Segen.
Doneldey, Das Bremer mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch des Arnoldus Doneldey.
Lindgren, Ein Stockholmer mittelniederdeutsches Arzneibuch.
Norrbom, Das Gothaer mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch.
Temmen, Das ‘Abdinghofer Arzneibuch’.
Das Promptuarium medicinae.
It is important here to note that since the Council of Constance (1414–1418), everything that lives in water has been classified as fish. Cf. Hoffmann R.C., “A brief history of aquatic resource use in medieval Europe”, Helgoland Marine Research 59 (2005) 22–30, esp. 23.
Cf. further footnote 33.
Sabri Kolta K., “Der Fisch im Volksglauben und in der Medizin der Araber”, Deutsches Schiffahrtsarchiv 1 (1975) 211–215.
Ibidem 212.
Ibidem 212.
Ibidem 212.
Ibidem 212.
Ibidem 212.
Ibidem 212.
Ibidem 214.
Soden W. von, “Fischgalle als Heilmittel für Augen”, in Soden W. von – Müller H.-P., Bibel und Alter Orient (Berlin – Boston: 1985) 76–77.
Ibidem 81.
Vallejo J.R. – González J.A., “Fish-based remedies in Spanish ethnomedicine: a review from a historical perspective”, Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 10.37 (2014) 1–31.
Naturalis historia by Pliny the Elder is considered part of ancient Spanish ethnomedical literature along with three other ancient sources. Cf. ibidem 3.
Cobo López M.P. – Tijera Jiménez R.E., Etnozoología de Doñana (Sevilla: 2013).
Rigat M. – Vallès J. – Iglésias J. – Garnatje T., “Traditional and alternative natural therapeutic products used in the treatment of respiratory tract infectious diseases in the eastern Catalan Pyrenees (Iberian Peninsula)”, Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148.2 (2013) 411–422.
Vallejo – González, “Fish-based remedies in Spanish ethnomedicine” 6–22.
Le Cornec C., “Les vertus diététiques attribuées aux poissons de mer”, in Connochie- Bourgne Ch. (ed.), Mondes marins du Moyen Âge (Aix-en-Provence: 2006) 273–284.
Clesse G., “Animaux aquatiques dans les sources médicales arabo-latines: continuités et discontinuités d’un discours”, Médiévales 80.1 (2021) 81–98.
Ibidem 95.
Cf. Wickersheimer E., “Zur spätmittelalterlichen Fischdiätetik: Deutsche Texte aus dem 15. Jahrhundert”, Sudhoffs Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin und der Naturwissenschaften 47.3 (1963) 411–416; Albala K., “Fish in Renaissance Dietary Theory”, in Walker H. (ed.), Fish. Food from the Waters. Proceedings of the Oxford symposium on food and cookery 1997 (Oxford: 1998) 9–19; Buxton M., “Fish-Eating in Medieval England”, in Walker H. (ed.), Fish. Food from the Waters. Proceedings of the Oxford symposium on food and cookery 1997 (Oxford: 1998) 51–59.
Cf. Maycock P.P. Jr., “Introduction to the Second Edition”, in Buchanan S. (ed.), The Doctrine of Signatures: A Defence of Theory in Medicine (Urbana, IL: 1991) xv–xxix; Ullmann M., Islamic Medicine (Edinburgh: 1997) 99; Vallejo – González, “Fish-based remedies in Spanish ethnomedicine” 26.
Cf. Mittelniederdeutsches Wörterbuch, online at https://www.slm.uni-hamburg.de/niederdeutsch/ueber-die-abteilung/mittelniederdeutsches-wb.htm , accessed on November 27, 2022.
Cf. Möhn D., “Vorwort zu Bd. II/1”, in Mittelniederdeutsches Handwörterbuch, ed. A. Lasch – C. Borchling – G. Cordes – D. Möhn – I. Schröder (Kiel – Hamburg: 1928 ff.) vol. II/1, I–XIII, esp. VI; Schröder I. – Tsapaeva S., “Komplexe Semantik im mittelniederdeutschen Wörterbuch”, in Harm V. – Lobenstein-Reichmann A. – Diehl G. (eds.), Wortwelten. Lexikographie, historische Semantik und Kulturwissenschaft (Berlin – Boston: 2019) 177–202, esp. 178–180.
Cf. Schröder I., “Niederdeutsch, niederdeutsche Sprache”, in HanseLexikon (HansLex), ed. Hansischer Geschichtsverband, online at https://www.hansischergeschichtsverein.de/lexikon, accessed on November 27, 2022; Möhn D. – Schröder I., “Lexikologie und Lexikographie des Mittelniederdeutschen”, in W. Besch – O. Reichmann – S. Sonderegger, Sprachgeschichte. Ein Handbuch zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und ihrer Erforschung, vol. 2.2 (Berlin – New York: 2000) 1435–1456; Schröder – Tsapaeva, “Komplexe Semantik im mittelniederdeutschen Wörterbuch” 179.
The project intern short form is relevant for the users of The Middle Low German Dictionary. One can find this short form completed and complemented by the page or folio reference in the respective dictionary articles beside the corresponding evidences for the lexemes.
Albrecht [van Borgunnien], Albrecht van Borgunnien’s Treatise on Medicine.
Temmen, Das ‘Abdinghofer Arzneibuch’.
Lindgren A., Die ‘aquae medicinales’ des mittelniederdeutschen Gothaer Arzneibuches (Stockholm: 1979).
Bartholomaeus [Salernitanus], Angebliche practica des Bartholomaeus von Salerno.
Brunschwig, Dat Boek der Wundenartzstedye.
Doneldey, Das Bremer mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch des Arnoldus Doneldey.
Das Breslauer Arzneibuch.
It must be said at this point that several medical works are included here, including Düdesche Arstedie and the Middle Low German Bartolomaeus’ Practica.
Norrbom, Das Gothaer mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch.
Alstermark, Das Arzneibuch des Johan van Segen.
Lindgren, “Ein Kopenhagener mittelniederdeutsches Arzneibuch”.
Graeter, Ein Leipziger deutscher Bartholomaeus.
Ljungqvist, Das mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch des Codex Guelferbytanus 1213 Helm- stadiensis.
Gallée, “Mittelniederdeutsches Arzneibuch”.
Das Promptuarium medicinae. According to the Union Catalogue of Incunabula, or Gesamtkatalog der Wiederdrucke the total number of copies or fragments in public institutions is 14. Cf. ‘Promptuarium medicinae’ at Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke, online at gesamtkatalogderwiegendrucke.de/docs/M35662.htm, accessed on November 27, 2022. Unfortunately the copy at the University and State Library Darmstadt seems to be lost; this copy cannot be traced via the library catalogue.
Regel, “Das mittelniederdeutsche Gothaer Arzneibuch und seine Pflanzennamen”.
Röder, Nütte lere vnd vnderricht Doct. Sebastiani Roͤder.
Lindgren, Ein Stockholmer mittelniederdeutsches Arzneibuch.
Das Utrechter Arzneibuch.
Regel, “Zwei mnd. Arzneibücher, Cod. Chart. Goth. 980 und Cod. Wolfenb. 23, 3.”
Temmen, Das ‘Abdinghofer Arzneibuch’.
Lindgren, Die ‘aquae medicinales’ des mittelniederdeutschen Gothaer Arzneibuches.
Bartholomaeus [Salernitanus], Angebliche practica des Bartholomaeus von Salerno.
Graeter, Ein Leipziger deutscher Bartholomaeus.
Brunschwig, Dat Boek der Wundenartzstedye.
Doneldey, Das Bremer mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch des Arnoldus Doneldey.
Lindgren, “Ein Kopenhagener mittelniederdeutsches Arzneibuch”.
Das Utrechter Arzneibuch.
Regel, “Zwei mnd. Arzneibücher, Cod. Chart. Goth. 980 und Cod. Wolfenb. 23,3”.
Das Breslauer Arzneibuch.
Ljungqvist, Das mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch des Codex Guelferbytanus 1213 Helmstadiensis 49.
Das Promptuarium medicinae 86.
Röder, Nütte lere vnd vnderricht Doct. Sebastiani Roͤder B Ir–Iv.
Lindgren, Ein Stockholmer mittelniederdeutsches Arzneibuch 97–98.
Norrbom, Das Gothaer mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch 73.
The translations were done by the author of the present chapter.
Norrbom, Das Gothaer mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch 76.
Norrbom, Das Gothaer mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch 189. Cf. also 7 Interpretation below.
Ibidem 182.
Alstermark, Das Arzneibuch des Johan van Segen 82.
Ibidem 107.
Lindgren, Ein Stockholmer mittelniederdeutsches Arzneibuch 138–139.
Matiegkova L., “Tierbestandteile in den altägyptischen Arzneien”, Archiv Orientálni 26 (1958) 529–560, esp. 555.
Albrecht [van Borgunnien], Albrecht van Borgunnien’s Treatise on Medicine 23.
Albrecht [van Borgunnien], Albrecht van Borgunnien’s Treatise on Medicine 25.
Norrbom, Das Gothaer mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch 85.
Alstermark, Das Arzneibuch des Johan van Segen 114.
Norrbom, Das Gothaer mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch 140.
Das Promptuarium medicinae 86.
Das Promptuarium medicinae 120.
Norrbom, Das Gothaer mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch 74.
Alstermark, Das Arzneibuch des Johan van Segen 88.
Alstermark, Das Arzneibuch des Johan van Segen 97.
Norrbom, Das Gothaer mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch 130.
Alstermark, Das Arzneibuch des Johan van Segen 91.
Albrecht [van Borgunnien], Albrecht van Borgunnien’s Treatise on Medicine 35.
Norrbom, Das Gothaer mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibuch 97.
Ibidem 189.