3. Creating long-term resilience against malaria vectors while addressing the immediate need to suppress pathogen transmission

In: Innovative strategies for vector control
Authors:
Fredros O. Okumu Environmental Health & Ecological Sciences, Ifakara Health Institute, P.O. Box 53, Ifakara, Tanzania.
School of Public Health, University of the Witwatersrand, 1 Smuts Avenue, Braamfontein 2000, Republic of South Africa.
Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, G12 8QQ Glasgow, United Kingdom.
School of Life Science and Bioengineering, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science & Technology, P.O. Box 447, Arusha, Tanzania.

Search for other papers by Fredros O. Okumu in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
and
Marceline F. Finda Environmental Health & Ecological Sciences, Ifakara Health Institute, P.O. Box 53, Ifakara, Tanzania.
School of Public Health, University of the Witwatersrand, 1 Smuts Avenue, Braamfontein 2000, Republic of South Africa.

Search for other papers by Marceline F. Finda in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
Type:
Chapter
Pages:
33–57
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.3920/978-90-8686-895-7_3
Open Access

Recent decades of malaria control have been dominated by extensive commoditisation of frontline interventions. Bed nets, insecticides, drugs and diagnostics have been scaled up in endemic countries, preventing millions of malaria cases and deaths. Unfortunately after years of progress, such gains are stagnating or diminishing due to challenges, such as insecticide and drug resistance, sub-optimal user compliance and the high costs for supply and replacements of these commodities. Without any viable vaccines or approaches that effectively tackle the environmental basis of malaria transmission, current commodities, and in particular the insecticide-based interventions, are incapable of preventing reinfections and rebounds, especially in low-income communities. This paper discusses a transitional approach for malaria prevention, involving judicious use of current tools while gradually building long-term resilience to sustain control of important vectors. The idea should be to carefully transition from insecticide-based to non-insecticidal approaches, without losing the gains made so far against malaria. In the short and medium-term, countries may deploy evidence-driven suites of current tools, e.g. insecticide treated nets (ITNs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS), while gradually introducing improved versions, such as nets with multiple chemical ingredients and long-lasting IRS formulations to suppress transmission. Depending on local evidence, these may be supplemented with niche technologies, such as spatial repellents, endectocides, odour-baited traps or mosquitocidal sugar baits to address gaps such as outdoor-biting and pyrethroid resistance. Once this is in place, countries should establish programmes to build long-term resilience to sustain the accrued gains and prevent transmission rebounds. Examples may include: incentivising the private sector to supply high-quality commodities e.g. locally-manufactured mosquito nets, providing subsidies to promote mosquito-free dwellings for low-income families, expanding community engagement in disease control and strengthening health systems to more effectively detect and manage cases. To secure these developments, endemic countries should also establish multi-sectorial initiatives prioritising disease control beyond malaria. Examples may include environmental sanitation to reduce vectors, institutionalised health education and capacity-building on biology and control of disease, appropriate legislation to improve compliance and protect vulnerable sub-populations and longterm domestic financing for malaria control. These programmes should be supported by a strong in-country research culture to constantly identify gaps, monitor progress and seek transformative approaches with potential to accelerate progress. If integrated in the wider public health context, this phased approach could contain ongoing malaria transmission, reduce over-reliance on insecticide-based tools and minimise transmission rebounds even in poor communities.

  • Alonso PL, Lindsay SW, Armstrong J, De Francisco A, Shenton F, Greenwood B, Conteh M, Cham K, Hill A and David P (1991) The effect of insecticide-treated bed nets on mortality of Gambian children. Lancet 337: 1499-1502.

  • Alonso PL, Lindsay SW, Armstrong Schellenberg JRM, Keita K, Gomez P, Shenton FC, Hill AG, David PH, Fegan G, Cham K and Greenwood BM (1993) A malaria control trial using insecticide-treated bed nets and targeted chemoprophylaxis in a rural area of the Gambia, West Africa. 6. The impact of interventions on mortality and morbidity from malaria. Trans R Soc Hyg Trop Med 87 (Suppl 2): 37-44.

  • Baltzell K, Harvard K, Hanley M, Gosling R and Chen I (2019) What is community engagement and how can it drive malaria elimination? Case studies and stakeholder interviews. Malar J 18: 245.

  • Barat LM (2006) Four malaria success stories: how malaria burden was successfully reduced in Brazil, Eritrea, India, and Vietnam. Am J Top Med Hyg 74: 12-16.

  • Bayoh MN, Mathias DK, Odiere MR, Mutuku FM, Kamau L, Gimnig JE, Vulule JM, Hawley WA, Hamel MJ and Walker ED (2010) Anopheles gambiae: historical population decline associated with regional distribution of insecticide-treated bed nets in western Nyanza Province, Kenya. Malar J 9: 62.

  • Bhatt S, Weiss D, Cameron E, Bisanzio D, Mappin B, Dalrymple U, Battle K, Moyes C, Henry A and Eckhoff P (2015) The effect of malaria control on Plasmodium falciparum in Africa between 2000 and 2015. Nature 526: 207-211.

  • Bruce-Chwatt B and Zulueta J (1980) The rise and fall of malaria in Europe; a historico-epidemiological study. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

  • Burrows J, Slater H, Macintyre F, Rees S, Thomas A, Okumu F, Van Huijsduijnen RH, Duparc S and Wells TN (2018) A discovery and development roadmap for new endectocidal transmission-blocking agents in malaria. Malar J 17: 462.

  • Calvo-Agudo M, González-Cabrera J, Picó Y, Calatayud-Vernich P, Urbaneja A, Dicke M and Tena A (2019) Neonicotinoids in excretion product of phloem-feeding insects kill beneficial insects. Proc Nat Acad Sci U S A 116: 16817-16822.

  • Chaccour CJ, Ngha’bi K, Abizanda G, Barrio AI, Aldaz A, Okumu F, Slater H, Del Pozo JL and Killeen G (2018) Targeting cattle for malaria elimination: marked reduction of Anopheles arabiensis survival for over six months using a slow-release ivermectin implant formulation. Parasites & Vectors 11: 287.

  • Chaki PP, Dongus S, Fillinger U, Kelly A and Killeen GF (2011) Community-owned resource persons for malaria vector control: enabling factors and challenges in an operational programme in Dar es Salaam, United Republic of Tanzania. Hum Resourc Health 9: 21.

  • Curtis CF and Mnzava AE (2000) Comparison of house spraying and insecticide-treated nets for malaria control. Bull Wrld Hlth Org 78: 1389-1400.

  • Davidson G (1953) Experiments on the effects of residual insecticides in houses against Anopheles gambiae and A. funestus. Bull Entomol Res 44: 231-254.

  • Ferguson HM, Dornhaus A, Beeche A, Borgemeister C, Gottlieb M, Mulla MS, Gimnig JE, Fish D and Killeen GF (2010) Ecology: A prerequisite for malaria elimination and eradication. PLoS Med 7: 1-89.

  • Finda MF, Christofides N, Lezaun J, Tarimo B, Chaki P, Kelly AH, Kapologwe N, Kazyoba P, Emidi B and Okumu FO (2020) Opinions of key stakeholders on alternative interventions for malaria control and elimination in Tanzania. Malar J 19: 164.

  • Finda MF, Limwagu AJ, Ngowo HS, Matowo NS, Swai JK, Kaindoa E and Okumu FO (2018) Dramatic decreases of malaria transmission intensities in Ifakara, south-eastern Tanzania since early 2000s. Malar J 17: 362.

  • Finda MF, Moshi IR, Monroe A, Limwagu AJ, Nyoni AP, Swai JK, Ngowo HS, Minja EG, Toe LP and Kaindoa EW (2019) Linking human behaviours and malaria vector biting risk in south-eastern Tanzania. PloS One 14: e0217414.

  • Gladwell M (2001) The mosquito killer: millions of people owe their lives to Fred Soper. Why isn’t he a hero? The New Yorker, July 2: 42-51.

  • Gleave K, Lissenden N, Richardson M, Choi L and Ranson H (2018) Piperonyl butoxide (PBO) combined with pyrethroids in insecticide‐treated nets to prevent malaria in Africa. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.

  • Gowelo S, McCann RS, Koenraadt CJ, Takken W, van den Berg H and Manda-Taylor L (2020) Community factors affecting participation in larval source management for malaria control in Chikwawa District, Southern Malawi. Malar J 19: 195.

  • Greenwood BM (2008) Control to elimination: implications for malaria research. Trends Parasitol 24: 449-454.

  • Haakenstad A, Harle AC, Tsakalos G, Micah AE, Tao T, Anjomshoa M, Cohen J, Fullman N, Hay SI and Mestrovic T (2019) Tracking spending on malaria by source in 106 countries, 2000-16: an economic modelling study. Lancet Inf Dis 19: 703-716.

  • Hancock P, Hendriks C, Tangena J-A, Gibson H, Hemingway J, Coleman M, Gething P, Cameron E, Bhatt S and Moyes C (2020) Mapping trends in insecticide resistance phenotypes in african malaria vectors. bioRxiv.

  • Harper PA, Lisansky ET and Sasse BE (1947) Malaria and other insect-borne diseases in the South Pacific campaign, 1942-1945. Am J Top Med Hyg 21 (Suppl.).

  • Hemingway J (2018) Resistance: a problem without an easy solution. Pest Biochem Physiol 151: 73-75.

  • Homan T, Hiscox A, Mweresa CK, Masiga D, Mukabana WR, Oria P, Maire N, Di Pasquale A, Silkey M and Alaii J (2016) The effect of mass mosquito trapping on malaria transmission and disease burden (SolarMal): a stepped-wedge cluster-randomised trial. Lancet 388: 1193-1201.

  • Horstmann S and Sonneck R (2016) Contact bioassays with phenoxybenzyl and tetrafluorobenzyl pyrethroids against target-site and metabolic resistant mosquitoes. PloS One 11: e0149738.

  • James S, Collins FH, Welkhoff PA, Emerson C, Godfray HCJ, Gottlieb M, Greenwood B, Lindsay SW, Mbogo CM and Okumu FO (2018) Pathway to deployment of gene drive mosquitoes as a potential biocontrol tool for elimination of malaria in sub-Saharan Africa: recommendations of a scientific working group. Am J Trop Med Hyg 98: 1-49.

  • Jamet HP (2016) Insecticide treated bednets for malaria control. Outlooks on Pest Management 27: 124-128.

  • Kaindoa EW, Finda M, Kiplagat J, Mkandawile G, Nyoni A, Coetzee M and Okumu FO (2018) Housing gaps, mosquitoes and public viewpoints: a mixed methods assessment of relationships between house characteristics, malaria vector biting risk and community perspectives in rural Tanzania. Malar J 17: 298.

  • Kaindoa EW, Matowo NS, Ngowo HS, Mkandawile G, Mmbando A, Finda M and Okumu FO (2017) Interventions that effectively target Anopheles funestus mosquitoes could significantly improve control of persistent malaria transmission in south-eastern Tanzania. PloS One 12: e0177807.

  • Killeen GF (2014) Characterizing, controlling and eliminating residual malaria transmission. Malar J 13: 330.

  • Kiswewski AE, Mellinger A, Spielman A, Malaney P, Sachs SE and Sachs J (2004) A global index representing the stability of malaria transmission. Am J Trop Med Hyg 70: 486-498.

  • Kumar R, Farzeen M, Hafeez A, Achakzai BK, Vankwani M, Lal M, Iqbal R and Somrongthong R (2020) Effectiveness of a health education intervention on the use of long-lasting insecticidal nets for the prevention of malaria in pregnant women of Pakistan: A Quasi-experimental study. Malar J 19: 232.

  • Kweka E, Mahande A, Ouma J, Karanja W, Msangi S, Temba V, Lyaruu L and Himeidan Y (2018) Novel indoor residual spray insecticide with extended mortality effect: a case of SumiShield 50WG against wild resistant populations of Anopheles arabiensis in Northern Tanzania. Global Health: Science and Practice 6: 758-765.

  • Lavery JV, Tinadana PO, Scott TW, Harrington LC, Ramsey JM, Ytuarte-Nuñez C and James AA (2010) Towards a framework for community engagement in global health research. Trends Parasitol 26: 279-283.

  • Lindsay SW, Emerson PM and Charlwood JD (2002) Reducing malaria transmission by mosquito-proofing homes. Trends Parasitol 18: 510-514.

  • Lindsay SW, Kirby M, Baris E and Bos R (2004) Environmental management for malaria control in the East Asia and Pacific (EAP) region. World Bank Report on Human, Nutrition and Population. World Bank, Washington, DC, USA.

  • Lorenz LM, Bradley J, Yukich J, Massue DJ, Mboma ZM, Pigeon O, Moore J, Killian A, Lines J and Kisinza W (2019) Comparative functional survival and equivalent annual cost of three long lasting insecticidal net (LLIN) products in Tanzania: a three-year prospective cohort study of LLIN attrition, physical integrity, and insecticidal activity. physical integrity, and insecticidal activity (June 21, 2019). PLoS Med 17: e1003248.

  • Lwetoijera DW, Harris C, Kiware SS, Dongus S, Devine GJ, McCall PJ and Majambere S (2014) Increasing role of Anopheles funestus and Anopheles arabiensis in malaria transmission in the Kilombero Valley, Tanzania. Malar J 13: 331.

  • malERA Refresh Consultative Panel on Tools for Malaria Elimination (2017) malERA: An updated research agenda for diagnostics, drugs, vaccines, and vector control in malaria elimination and eradication. PLoS Med 14: e1002455.

  • Masum H, Shah R, Schroeder K, Daar AS and Singer PA (2010) Africa’s largest long-lasting insecticide-treated net producer: lessons from A to Z Textiles. BMC Int Health and Human Rights 10: S6.

  • Matowo NS, Tanner M, Munhenga G, Mapua SA, Finda M, Utzinger J, Ngowi V and Okumu FO (2020) Patterns of pesticides usage in agriculture in rural tanzania call for integrating agricultural and public health practices in managing insecticide-resistance in malaria vectors. Malar J 19: 257.

  • McCann RS, Ochomo E, Bayoh MN, Vulule JM, Hamel MJ, Gimnig JE, Hawley WA and Walker ED (2014) Reemergence of Anopheles funestus as a vector of Plasmodium falciparum in western Kenya after long-term implementation of insecticide-treated bed nets. Am J Trop Med Hyg 90: 597-604.

  • Mlozi MR, Rumisha SF, Mlacha T, Bwana VM, Shayo EH, Mayala BK, Malima RC, Mashoto KO and Mboera LE (2015) Challenges and opportunities for implementing an intersectoral approach in malaria control in Tanzania. Tanz J Health Res 17: 1-16.

  • Mmbando AS, Ngowo H, Limwagu A, Kilalangongono M, Kifungo K and Okumu FO (2018) Eave ribbons treated with the spatial repellent, transfluthrin, can effectively protect against indoor-biting and outdoor-biting malaria mosquitoes. Malar J 17: 368.

  • Monroe A, Moore S, Koenker H, Lynch M and Ricotta E (2019) Measuring and characterizing night time human behaviour as it relates to residual malaria transmission in sub-Saharan Africa: a review of the published literature. Malar J 18: 6.

  • Monroe A, Msaky D, Kiware S, Tarimo BB, Moore S, Haji K, Koenker H, Harvey S, Finda M, Ngowo H, Mihayo K, Greer G, Ali A and Fredros O (2020) Patterns of human exposure to malaria vectors in Zanzibar and implications for malaria elimination efforts. Malar J 19: 212.

  • Msugupakulya BJ, Kaindoa EW, Ngowo HS, Kihonda JM, Kahamba NF, Msaky DS, Matoke-Muhia D, Tungu PK and Okumu FO (2020) Preferred resting surfaces of dominant malaria vectors inside different house types in rural south-eastern Tanzania. Malar J 19: 22.

  • Mutero CM, Kramer RA, Paul C, Lesser A, Miranda ML, Mboera LE, Kiptui R, Kabatereine N and Ameneshewa B (2014) Factors influencing malaria control policy-making in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. Malar J 13: 305.

  • Mutero CM, Schlodder D, Kabatereine N and Kramer R (2012) Integrated vector management for malaria control in Uganda: knowledge, perceptions and policy development. Malar J 11: 21.

  • Nájera J, González-Silva M and Alonso PL (2011) Some lessons for the future from the Global Malaria Eradication Programme (1955-1969). PLoS Med 8: e1000412.

  • Najera JA (2001) Malaria control: achievements, problems and strategies. Parassit 43: 1-89.

  • Nambunga I, Okumu F, Ngowo H, Mapua S, Hape E, Msugupakulya B, Msaky D, Mhumbira N, Mchwembo K and Tamayamali G (2020) Aquatic habitats of the malaria vector, Anopheles funestus in rural south-eastern Tanzania. Malar J 19: 219.

  • National Development Corporation (NDC) (2020) Tanzania Biotech Products Limited. Available at: http://tanzaniabiotech.co.tz/.

  • Ngwej LM, Hattingh I, Mlambo G, Mashat EM, Kashala J-CK, Malonga FK and Bangs MJ (2019) Indoor residual spray bio-efficacy and residual activity of a clothianidin-based formulation (SumiShield® 50WG) provides long persistence on various wall surfaces for malaria control in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Malar J 18: 72.

  • Nkurunziza M (2020) Rwanda to distribute first locally made mosquito nets. All Africa News, New Times Rwanda.

  • Nkya TE, Akhouayri I, Kisinza W and David J-P (2013) Impact of environment on mosquito response to pyrethroid insecticides: facts, evidences and prospects. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 43: 407-416.

  • Okumu F (2020) The fabric of life: what if mosquito nets were durable and widely available but insecticide-free? Malar J 19: 260.

  • Okumu FO, Govella NJ, Moore SJ, Chitnis N and Killeen GF (2010) Potential benefits, limitations and target product-profiles of odor-baited mosquito traps for malaria control in Africa. PLoS ONE 5: e11573.

  • Okumu FO and Moore SJ (2011) Combining indoor residual spraying and insecticide-treated nets for malaria control in Africa: a review of possible outcomes and an outline of suggestions for the future. Malar J 10: 208.

  • Paaijmans KP and Huijben S (2020) Taking the ‘I’out of LLINs: using insecticides in vector control tools other than long-lasting nets to fight malaria. Malar J 19: 73.

  • Premaratne R, Wickremasinghe R, Ranaweera D, de AW Gunasekera WKT, Hevawitharana M, Pieris L, Fernando D and Mendis K (2019) Technical and operational underpinnings of malaria elimination from Sri Lanka. Malar J 18: 256.

  • Protopopoff N, Mosha JF, Lukole E, Charlwood JD, Wright A, Mwalimu CD, Manjurano A, Mosha FW, Kisinza W and Kleinschmidt I (2018) Effectiveness of a long-lasting piperonyl butoxide-treated insecticidal net and indoor residual spray interventions, separately and together, against malaria transmitted by pyrethroid-resistant mosquitoes: a cluster, randomised controlled, two-by-two factorial design trial. Lancet 391: 1577-1588.

  • Quinlan MM, Smith J, Layton R, Keese P, Agbagala M, Lorelie U, Palacpac MB and Ball L (2016) Experiences in engaging the public on biotechnology advances and regulation. Front Bioeng Biotech 4: 3.

  • Rabinovich RN, Drakeley C, Djimde AA, Hall BF, Hay SI, Hemingway J, Kaslow DC, Noor A, Okumu F and Steketee R (2017) malERA: An updated research agenda for malaria elimination and eradication. PLoS Med 14: e1002456.

  • Ranson H and Lissenden N (2016) Insecticide resistance in African Anopheles mosquitoes: a worsening situation that needs urgent action to maintain malaria control. Trends Parasit 32: 187-196.

  • Resnik DB (2017) Field trials of genetically modified mosquitoes and public health ethics. American J Bioethics 17: 24-26. Roberts L and Enserink M (2007) Did they really say… eradication? Science 318: 1544-1545.

  • Roll Back Malaria (2020) 2 billion mosquito nets delivered worldwide since 2004. Available at: https://endmalaria.org/news/2-billion-mosquito-nets-delivered-worldwide-2004.

  • Ross R (1897) On some peculiar pigmented cells found in two mosquitos fed on malarial blood. BMJ 2: 1786.

  • Ross R (1923) Memoirs: with a full account of the great malaria problem and its solution. Studies on Malaria. John Murray, London, UK.

  • Sadasivaiah s, Tozan Y and Breman JG (2007) Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) for indoor residual spraying in Africa: how can it be used for malaria control? Am J Trop Med Hyg 77: 249-263.

  • Sherrard-Smith E, Skarp JE, Beale AD, Fornadel C, Norris LC, Moore SJ, Mihreteab S, Charlwood JD, Bhatt S and Winskill P (2019) Mosquito feeding behavior and how it influences residual malaria transmission across Africa. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 116: 15086-15095.

  • Shretta R, Silal SP, Malm K, Mohammed W, Narh J, Piccinini D, Bertram K, Rockwood J and Lynch M (2020) Estimating the risk of declining funding for malaria in Ghana: the case for continued investment in the malaria response. Malar J 19: 196.

  • Skovmand O (2018) Comparing the un-comparable: Olyset Plus and Olyset, different malaria impact. Malar J 17: 446. Smith A (1962a) The preferential indoor resting habits of Anopheles gambiae in the Umbugwe area of Tanganyika. East African Med J 39: 631-635.

  • Smith A (1962b) Studies on domestic habits of Anopheles. gambiae that affect its vulnerability to insecticides. East African Med J 39: 15-24.

  • Soper FL and Wilson DB (1943) Anopheles gambiae in Brazil: 1930 to 1940. The Rockefeller Foundation, New York, NY, USA.

  • Sougoufara S, Ottih EC and Tripet F (2020) The need for new vector control approaches targeting outdoor biting Anopheline malaria vector communities. Parasites & Vectors 13: 1-15.

  • Staedke SG, Gonahasa S, Dorsey G, Kamya MR, Maiteki-Sebuguzi C, Lynd A, Katureebe A, Kyohere M, Mutungi P and Kigozi SP (2020) Effect of long-lasting insecticidal nets with and without piperonyl butoxide on malaria indicators in Uganda (LLINEUP): a pragmatic, cluster-randomised trial embedded in a national LLIN distribution campaign. Lancet 395: 1292-1303.

  • Sternberg ED and Thomas MB (2018) Insights from agriculture for the management of insecticide resistance in disease vectors. Evol Appl 11: 404-414.

  • Swai JK, Mmbando AS, Ngowo HS, Odufuwa OG, Finda MF, Mponzi W, Nyoni AP, Kazimbaya D, Limwagu AJ and Njalambaha RM (2019) Protecting migratory farmers in rural Tanzania using eave ribbons treated with the spatial mosquito repellent, transfluthrin. Malar J 18: 414.

  • Takken W and Verhulst NO (2013) Host preferences of blood-feeding mosquitoes. Annual Review of Entomology 58: 433-453.

  • Thizy D, Emerson C, Gibbs J, Hartley S, Kapiriri L, Lavery J, Lunshof J, Ramsey J, Shapiro J and Singh JA (2019) Guidance on stakeholder engagement practices to inform the development of area-wide vector control methods. PLoS Negl Tropical Dis 13: e0007286.

  • Thomas MB, Godfray HCJ, Read AF, van den Berg H, Tabashnik BE, van Lenteren JC, Waage JK and Takken W (2012) Lessons from agriculture for the sustainable management of malaria vectors. PLoS Med 9: e1001262.

  • Tiono AB, Ouédraogo A, Ouattara D, Bougouma EC, Coulibaly S, Diarra A, Faragher B, Guelbeogo MW, Grisales N and Ouédraogo IN (2018) Efficacy of Olyset Duo, a bednet containing pyriproxyfen and permethrin, versus a permethrin-only net against clinical malaria in an area with highly pyrethroid-resistant vectors in rural Burkina Faso: a cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet 392: 569-580.

  • Traore MM, Junnila A, Traore SF, Doumbia S, Revay EE, Kravchenko VD, Schlein Y, Arheart KL, Gergely P and Xue R-D (2020) Large-scale field trial of attractive toxic sugar baits (ATSB) for the control of malaria vector mosquitoes in Mali, West Africa. Malar J 19: 72.

  • Tusting LS, Bisanzio D, Alabaster G, Cameron E, Cibulskis R, Davies M, Flaxman S, Gibson HS, Knudsen J and Mbogo C (2019) Mapping changes in housing in sub-Saharan Africa from 2000 to 2015. Nature 568: 391.

  • Tusting LS, Bottomley C, Gibson H, Kleinschmidt I, Tatem AJ, Lindsay SW and Gething PW (2017) Housing improvements and malaria risk in sub-Saharan Africa: a multi-country analysis of survey data. PLoS Med 14: e1002234.

  • Utzinger J, Tanner M, Kammen DM, Killeen GF and Singer BH (2002) Integrated programme is key to malaria control. Nature 419: 431-431.

  • Utzinger J, Tozan Y and Singer BH (2001) Efficacy and cost effectiveness of environmental management for malaria control. Trop Med Int Health 6: 677-687.

  • Van den Berg H, Gu B, Grenier B, Kohlschmid E, Al-Eryani S, da Silva Bezerra HS, Nagpal BN, Chanda E, Gasimov E and Velayudhan R (2020) Pesticide lifecycle management in agriculture and public health: Where are the gaps? Sci Total Env 742: 140598.

  • Whittaker M and Smith C (2015) Reimagining malaria: five reasons to strengthen community engagement in the lead up to malaria elimination. Malar J 14: 410.

  • WHO (1993) Global malaria control strategy. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

  • WHO (2008) Position statement on integrated vector management. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland WHO (2012) Global plan for insecticide resistance management in malaria vectors, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

  • WHO (2017) Global vector control response 2017-2030. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

  • WHO (2019) World malaria report 2019. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

  • WHO (2020a) The potential impact of health service disruptions on the burden of malaria: a modelling analysis for countries in sub-Saharan Africa. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

  • WHO (2020b) Prequalification Vector Control: Prequalified lists of vector control products. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Available at: https://www.who.int/pq-vector-control/prequalified-lists/en/.

  • Williams YA, Tusting LS, Hocini S, Graves PM, Killeen GF, Kleinschmidt I, Okumu FO, Feachem RG, Tatarsky A and Gosling RD (2018) Expanding the vector control toolbox for malaria elimination: a systematic review of the evidence. Adv Parasit 99: 345-379.

  • Wilson AL, Courtenay O, Kelly-Hope LA, Scott TW, Takken W, Torr SJ and Lindsay SW (2020) The importance of vector control for the control and elimination of vector-borne diseases. PLoS neglected tropical diseases 14: e0007831.

Citation Info

  • Collapse
  • Expand

Innovative strategies for vector control

Progress in the global vector control response

Series:  Ecology and Control of Vector-borne Diseases, Volume: 6
Cover Innovative strategies for vector control
E-Book ISBN:
9789086868957
Publisher:
Wageningen Academic
Print Publication Date:
04 Mar 2021

  • Alonso PL, Lindsay SW, Armstrong J, De Francisco A, Shenton F, Greenwood B, Conteh M, Cham K, Hill A and David P (1991) The effect of insecticide-treated bed nets on mortality of Gambian children. Lancet 337: 1499-1502.

  • Alonso PL, Lindsay SW, Armstrong Schellenberg JRM, Keita K, Gomez P, Shenton FC, Hill AG, David PH, Fegan G, Cham K and Greenwood BM (1993) A malaria control trial using insecticide-treated bed nets and targeted chemoprophylaxis in a rural area of the Gambia, West Africa. 6. The impact of interventions on mortality and morbidity from malaria. Trans R Soc Hyg Trop Med 87 (Suppl 2): 37-44.

  • Baltzell K, Harvard K, Hanley M, Gosling R and Chen I (2019) What is community engagement and how can it drive malaria elimination? Case studies and stakeholder interviews. Malar J 18: 245.

  • Barat LM (2006) Four malaria success stories: how malaria burden was successfully reduced in Brazil, Eritrea, India, and Vietnam. Am J Top Med Hyg 74: 12-16.

  • Bayoh MN, Mathias DK, Odiere MR, Mutuku FM, Kamau L, Gimnig JE, Vulule JM, Hawley WA, Hamel MJ and Walker ED (2010) Anopheles gambiae: historical population decline associated with regional distribution of insecticide-treated bed nets in western Nyanza Province, Kenya. Malar J 9: 62.

  • Bhatt S, Weiss D, Cameron E, Bisanzio D, Mappin B, Dalrymple U, Battle K, Moyes C, Henry A and Eckhoff P (2015) The effect of malaria control on Plasmodium falciparum in Africa between 2000 and 2015. Nature 526: 207-211.

  • Bruce-Chwatt B and Zulueta J (1980) The rise and fall of malaria in Europe; a historico-epidemiological study. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

  • Burrows J, Slater H, Macintyre F, Rees S, Thomas A, Okumu F, Van Huijsduijnen RH, Duparc S and Wells TN (2018) A discovery and development roadmap for new endectocidal transmission-blocking agents in malaria. Malar J 17: 462.

  • Calvo-Agudo M, González-Cabrera J, Picó Y, Calatayud-Vernich P, Urbaneja A, Dicke M and Tena A (2019) Neonicotinoids in excretion product of phloem-feeding insects kill beneficial insects. Proc Nat Acad Sci U S A 116: 16817-16822.

  • Chaccour CJ, Ngha’bi K, Abizanda G, Barrio AI, Aldaz A, Okumu F, Slater H, Del Pozo JL and Killeen G (2018) Targeting cattle for malaria elimination: marked reduction of Anopheles arabiensis survival for over six months using a slow-release ivermectin implant formulation. Parasites & Vectors 11: 287.

  • Chaki PP, Dongus S, Fillinger U, Kelly A and Killeen GF (2011) Community-owned resource persons for malaria vector control: enabling factors and challenges in an operational programme in Dar es Salaam, United Republic of Tanzania. Hum Resourc Health 9: 21.

  • Curtis CF and Mnzava AE (2000) Comparison of house spraying and insecticide-treated nets for malaria control. Bull Wrld Hlth Org 78: 1389-1400.

  • Davidson G (1953) Experiments on the effects of residual insecticides in houses against Anopheles gambiae and A. funestus. Bull Entomol Res 44: 231-254.

  • Ferguson HM, Dornhaus A, Beeche A, Borgemeister C, Gottlieb M, Mulla MS, Gimnig JE, Fish D and Killeen GF (2010) Ecology: A prerequisite for malaria elimination and eradication. PLoS Med 7: 1-89.

  • Finda MF, Christofides N, Lezaun J, Tarimo B, Chaki P, Kelly AH, Kapologwe N, Kazyoba P, Emidi B and Okumu FO (2020) Opinions of key stakeholders on alternative interventions for malaria control and elimination in Tanzania. Malar J 19: 164.

  • Finda MF, Limwagu AJ, Ngowo HS, Matowo NS, Swai JK, Kaindoa E and Okumu FO (2018) Dramatic decreases of malaria transmission intensities in Ifakara, south-eastern Tanzania since early 2000s. Malar J 17: 362.

  • Finda MF, Moshi IR, Monroe A, Limwagu AJ, Nyoni AP, Swai JK, Ngowo HS, Minja EG, Toe LP and Kaindoa EW (2019) Linking human behaviours and malaria vector biting risk in south-eastern Tanzania. PloS One 14: e0217414.

  • Gladwell M (2001) The mosquito killer: millions of people owe their lives to Fred Soper. Why isn’t he a hero? The New Yorker, July 2: 42-51.

  • Gleave K, Lissenden N, Richardson M, Choi L and Ranson H (2018) Piperonyl butoxide (PBO) combined with pyrethroids in insecticide‐treated nets to prevent malaria in Africa. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.

  • Gowelo S, McCann RS, Koenraadt CJ, Takken W, van den Berg H and Manda-Taylor L (2020) Community factors affecting participation in larval source management for malaria control in Chikwawa District, Southern Malawi. Malar J 19: 195.

  • Greenwood BM (2008) Control to elimination: implications for malaria research. Trends Parasitol 24: 449-454.

  • Haakenstad A, Harle AC, Tsakalos G, Micah AE, Tao T, Anjomshoa M, Cohen J, Fullman N, Hay SI and Mestrovic T (2019) Tracking spending on malaria by source in 106 countries, 2000-16: an economic modelling study. Lancet Inf Dis 19: 703-716.

  • Hancock P, Hendriks C, Tangena J-A, Gibson H, Hemingway J, Coleman M, Gething P, Cameron E, Bhatt S and Moyes C (2020) Mapping trends in insecticide resistance phenotypes in african malaria vectors. bioRxiv.

  • Harper PA, Lisansky ET and Sasse BE (1947) Malaria and other insect-borne diseases in the South Pacific campaign, 1942-1945. Am J Top Med Hyg 21 (Suppl.).

  • Hemingway J (2018) Resistance: a problem without an easy solution. Pest Biochem Physiol 151: 73-75.

  • Homan T, Hiscox A, Mweresa CK, Masiga D, Mukabana WR, Oria P, Maire N, Di Pasquale A, Silkey M and Alaii J (2016) The effect of mass mosquito trapping on malaria transmission and disease burden (SolarMal): a stepped-wedge cluster-randomised trial. Lancet 388: 1193-1201.

  • Horstmann S and Sonneck R (2016) Contact bioassays with phenoxybenzyl and tetrafluorobenzyl pyrethroids against target-site and metabolic resistant mosquitoes. PloS One 11: e0149738.

  • James S, Collins FH, Welkhoff PA, Emerson C, Godfray HCJ, Gottlieb M, Greenwood B, Lindsay SW, Mbogo CM and Okumu FO (2018) Pathway to deployment of gene drive mosquitoes as a potential biocontrol tool for elimination of malaria in sub-Saharan Africa: recommendations of a scientific working group. Am J Trop Med Hyg 98: 1-49.

  • Jamet HP (2016) Insecticide treated bednets for malaria control. Outlooks on Pest Management 27: 124-128.

  • Kaindoa EW, Finda M, Kiplagat J, Mkandawile G, Nyoni A, Coetzee M and Okumu FO (2018) Housing gaps, mosquitoes and public viewpoints: a mixed methods assessment of relationships between house characteristics, malaria vector biting risk and community perspectives in rural Tanzania. Malar J 17: 298.

  • Kaindoa EW, Matowo NS, Ngowo HS, Mkandawile G, Mmbando A, Finda M and Okumu FO (2017) Interventions that effectively target Anopheles funestus mosquitoes could significantly improve control of persistent malaria transmission in south-eastern Tanzania. PloS One 12: e0177807.

  • Killeen GF (2014) Characterizing, controlling and eliminating residual malaria transmission. Malar J 13: 330.

  • Kiswewski AE, Mellinger A, Spielman A, Malaney P, Sachs SE and Sachs J (2004) A global index representing the stability of malaria transmission. Am J Trop Med Hyg 70: 486-498.

  • Kumar R, Farzeen M, Hafeez A, Achakzai BK, Vankwani M, Lal M, Iqbal R and Somrongthong R (2020) Effectiveness of a health education intervention on the use of long-lasting insecticidal nets for the prevention of malaria in pregnant women of Pakistan: A Quasi-experimental study. Malar J 19: 232.

  • Kweka E, Mahande A, Ouma J, Karanja W, Msangi S, Temba V, Lyaruu L and Himeidan Y (2018) Novel indoor residual spray insecticide with extended mortality effect: a case of SumiShield 50WG against wild resistant populations of Anopheles arabiensis in Northern Tanzania. Global Health: Science and Practice 6: 758-765.

  • Lavery JV, Tinadana PO, Scott TW, Harrington LC, Ramsey JM, Ytuarte-Nuñez C and James AA (2010) Towards a framework for community engagement in global health research. Trends Parasitol 26: 279-283.

  • Lindsay SW, Emerson PM and Charlwood JD (2002) Reducing malaria transmission by mosquito-proofing homes. Trends Parasitol 18: 510-514.

  • Lindsay SW, Kirby M, Baris E and Bos R (2004) Environmental management for malaria control in the East Asia and Pacific (EAP) region. World Bank Report on Human, Nutrition and Population. World Bank, Washington, DC, USA.

  • Lorenz LM, Bradley J, Yukich J, Massue DJ, Mboma ZM, Pigeon O, Moore J, Killian A, Lines J and Kisinza W (2019) Comparative functional survival and equivalent annual cost of three long lasting insecticidal net (LLIN) products in Tanzania: a three-year prospective cohort study of LLIN attrition, physical integrity, and insecticidal activity. physical integrity, and insecticidal activity (June 21, 2019). PLoS Med 17: e1003248.

  • Lwetoijera DW, Harris C, Kiware SS, Dongus S, Devine GJ, McCall PJ and Majambere S (2014) Increasing role of Anopheles funestus and Anopheles arabiensis in malaria transmission in the Kilombero Valley, Tanzania. Malar J 13: 331.

  • malERA Refresh Consultative Panel on Tools for Malaria Elimination (2017) malERA: An updated research agenda for diagnostics, drugs, vaccines, and vector control in malaria elimination and eradication. PLoS Med 14: e1002455.

  • Masum H, Shah R, Schroeder K, Daar AS and Singer PA (2010) Africa’s largest long-lasting insecticide-treated net producer: lessons from A to Z Textiles. BMC Int Health and Human Rights 10: S6.

  • Matowo NS, Tanner M, Munhenga G, Mapua SA, Finda M, Utzinger J, Ngowi V and Okumu FO (2020) Patterns of pesticides usage in agriculture in rural tanzania call for integrating agricultural and public health practices in managing insecticide-resistance in malaria vectors. Malar J 19: 257.

  • McCann RS, Ochomo E, Bayoh MN, Vulule JM, Hamel MJ, Gimnig JE, Hawley WA and Walker ED (2014) Reemergence of Anopheles funestus as a vector of Plasmodium falciparum in western Kenya after long-term implementation of insecticide-treated bed nets. Am J Trop Med Hyg 90: 597-604.

  • Mlozi MR, Rumisha SF, Mlacha T, Bwana VM, Shayo EH, Mayala BK, Malima RC, Mashoto KO and Mboera LE (2015) Challenges and opportunities for implementing an intersectoral approach in malaria control in Tanzania. Tanz J Health Res 17: 1-16.

  • Mmbando AS, Ngowo H, Limwagu A, Kilalangongono M, Kifungo K and Okumu FO (2018) Eave ribbons treated with the spatial repellent, transfluthrin, can effectively protect against indoor-biting and outdoor-biting malaria mosquitoes. Malar J 17: 368.

  • Monroe A, Moore S, Koenker H, Lynch M and Ricotta E (2019) Measuring and characterizing night time human behaviour as it relates to residual malaria transmission in sub-Saharan Africa: a review of the published literature. Malar J 18: 6.

  • Monroe A, Msaky D, Kiware S, Tarimo BB, Moore S, Haji K, Koenker H, Harvey S, Finda M, Ngowo H, Mihayo K, Greer G, Ali A and Fredros O (2020) Patterns of human exposure to malaria vectors in Zanzibar and implications for malaria elimination efforts. Malar J 19: 212.

  • Msugupakulya BJ, Kaindoa EW, Ngowo HS, Kihonda JM, Kahamba NF, Msaky DS, Matoke-Muhia D, Tungu PK and Okumu FO (2020) Preferred resting surfaces of dominant malaria vectors inside different house types in rural south-eastern Tanzania. Malar J 19: 22.

  • Mutero CM, Kramer RA, Paul C, Lesser A, Miranda ML, Mboera LE, Kiptui R, Kabatereine N and Ameneshewa B (2014) Factors influencing malaria control policy-making in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. Malar J 13: 305.

  • Mutero CM, Schlodder D, Kabatereine N and Kramer R (2012) Integrated vector management for malaria control in Uganda: knowledge, perceptions and policy development. Malar J 11: 21.

  • Nájera J, González-Silva M and Alonso PL (2011) Some lessons for the future from the Global Malaria Eradication Programme (1955-1969). PLoS Med 8: e1000412.

  • Najera JA (2001) Malaria control: achievements, problems and strategies. Parassit 43: 1-89.

  • Nambunga I, Okumu F, Ngowo H, Mapua S, Hape E, Msugupakulya B, Msaky D, Mhumbira N, Mchwembo K and Tamayamali G (2020) Aquatic habitats of the malaria vector, Anopheles funestus in rural south-eastern Tanzania. Malar J 19: 219.

  • National Development Corporation (NDC) (2020) Tanzania Biotech Products Limited. Available at: http://tanzaniabiotech.co.tz/.

  • Ngwej LM, Hattingh I, Mlambo G, Mashat EM, Kashala J-CK, Malonga FK and Bangs MJ (2019) Indoor residual spray bio-efficacy and residual activity of a clothianidin-based formulation (SumiShield® 50WG) provides long persistence on various wall surfaces for malaria control in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Malar J 18: 72.

  • Nkurunziza M (2020) Rwanda to distribute first locally made mosquito nets. All Africa News, New Times Rwanda.

  • Nkya TE, Akhouayri I, Kisinza W and David J-P (2013) Impact of environment on mosquito response to pyrethroid insecticides: facts, evidences and prospects. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 43: 407-416.

  • Okumu F (2020) The fabric of life: what if mosquito nets were durable and widely available but insecticide-free? Malar J 19: 260.

  • Okumu FO, Govella NJ, Moore SJ, Chitnis N and Killeen GF (2010) Potential benefits, limitations and target product-profiles of odor-baited mosquito traps for malaria control in Africa. PLoS ONE 5: e11573.

  • Okumu FO and Moore SJ (2011) Combining indoor residual spraying and insecticide-treated nets for malaria control in Africa: a review of possible outcomes and an outline of suggestions for the future. Malar J 10: 208.

  • Paaijmans KP and Huijben S (2020) Taking the ‘I’out of LLINs: using insecticides in vector control tools other than long-lasting nets to fight malaria. Malar J 19: 73.

  • Premaratne R, Wickremasinghe R, Ranaweera D, de AW Gunasekera WKT, Hevawitharana M, Pieris L, Fernando D and Mendis K (2019) Technical and operational underpinnings of malaria elimination from Sri Lanka. Malar J 18: 256.

  • Protopopoff N, Mosha JF, Lukole E, Charlwood JD, Wright A, Mwalimu CD, Manjurano A, Mosha FW, Kisinza W and Kleinschmidt I (2018) Effectiveness of a long-lasting piperonyl butoxide-treated insecticidal net and indoor residual spray interventions, separately and together, against malaria transmitted by pyrethroid-resistant mosquitoes: a cluster, randomised controlled, two-by-two factorial design trial. Lancet 391: 1577-1588.

  • Quinlan MM, Smith J, Layton R, Keese P, Agbagala M, Lorelie U, Palacpac MB and Ball L (2016) Experiences in engaging the public on biotechnology advances and regulation. Front Bioeng Biotech 4: 3.

  • Rabinovich RN, Drakeley C, Djimde AA, Hall BF, Hay SI, Hemingway J, Kaslow DC, Noor A, Okumu F and Steketee R (2017) malERA: An updated research agenda for malaria elimination and eradication. PLoS Med 14: e1002456.

  • Ranson H and Lissenden N (2016) Insecticide resistance in African Anopheles mosquitoes: a worsening situation that needs urgent action to maintain malaria control. Trends Parasit 32: 187-196.

  • Resnik DB (2017) Field trials of genetically modified mosquitoes and public health ethics. American J Bioethics 17: 24-26. Roberts L and Enserink M (2007) Did they really say… eradication? Science 318: 1544-1545.

  • Roll Back Malaria (2020) 2 billion mosquito nets delivered worldwide since 2004. Available at: https://endmalaria.org/news/2-billion-mosquito-nets-delivered-worldwide-2004.

  • Ross R (1897) On some peculiar pigmented cells found in two mosquitos fed on malarial blood. BMJ 2: 1786.

  • Ross R (1923) Memoirs: with a full account of the great malaria problem and its solution. Studies on Malaria. John Murray, London, UK.

  • Sadasivaiah s, Tozan Y and Breman JG (2007) Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) for indoor residual spraying in Africa: how can it be used for malaria control? Am J Trop Med Hyg 77: 249-263.

  • Sherrard-Smith E, Skarp JE, Beale AD, Fornadel C, Norris LC, Moore SJ, Mihreteab S, Charlwood JD, Bhatt S and Winskill P (2019) Mosquito feeding behavior and how it influences residual malaria transmission across Africa. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 116: 15086-15095.

  • Shretta R, Silal SP, Malm K, Mohammed W, Narh J, Piccinini D, Bertram K, Rockwood J and Lynch M (2020) Estimating the risk of declining funding for malaria in Ghana: the case for continued investment in the malaria response. Malar J 19: 196.

  • Skovmand O (2018) Comparing the un-comparable: Olyset Plus and Olyset, different malaria impact. Malar J 17: 446. Smith A (1962a) The preferential indoor resting habits of Anopheles gambiae in the Umbugwe area of Tanganyika. East African Med J 39: 631-635.

  • Smith A (1962b) Studies on domestic habits of Anopheles. gambiae that affect its vulnerability to insecticides. East African Med J 39: 15-24.

  • Soper FL and Wilson DB (1943) Anopheles gambiae in Brazil: 1930 to 1940. The Rockefeller Foundation, New York, NY, USA.

  • Sougoufara S, Ottih EC and Tripet F (2020) The need for new vector control approaches targeting outdoor biting Anopheline malaria vector communities. Parasites & Vectors 13: 1-15.

  • Staedke SG, Gonahasa S, Dorsey G, Kamya MR, Maiteki-Sebuguzi C, Lynd A, Katureebe A, Kyohere M, Mutungi P and Kigozi SP (2020) Effect of long-lasting insecticidal nets with and without piperonyl butoxide on malaria indicators in Uganda (LLINEUP): a pragmatic, cluster-randomised trial embedded in a national LLIN distribution campaign. Lancet 395: 1292-1303.

  • Sternberg ED and Thomas MB (2018) Insights from agriculture for the management of insecticide resistance in disease vectors. Evol Appl 11: 404-414.

  • Swai JK, Mmbando AS, Ngowo HS, Odufuwa OG, Finda MF, Mponzi W, Nyoni AP, Kazimbaya D, Limwagu AJ and Njalambaha RM (2019) Protecting migratory farmers in rural Tanzania using eave ribbons treated with the spatial mosquito repellent, transfluthrin. Malar J 18: 414.

  • Takken W and Verhulst NO (2013) Host preferences of blood-feeding mosquitoes. Annual Review of Entomology 58: 433-453.

  • Thizy D, Emerson C, Gibbs J, Hartley S, Kapiriri L, Lavery J, Lunshof J, Ramsey J, Shapiro J and Singh JA (2019) Guidance on stakeholder engagement practices to inform the development of area-wide vector control methods. PLoS Negl Tropical Dis 13: e0007286.

  • Thomas MB, Godfray HCJ, Read AF, van den Berg H, Tabashnik BE, van Lenteren JC, Waage JK and Takken W (2012) Lessons from agriculture for the sustainable management of malaria vectors. PLoS Med 9: e1001262.

  • Tiono AB, Ouédraogo A, Ouattara D, Bougouma EC, Coulibaly S, Diarra A, Faragher B, Guelbeogo MW, Grisales N and Ouédraogo IN (2018) Efficacy of Olyset Duo, a bednet containing pyriproxyfen and permethrin, versus a permethrin-only net against clinical malaria in an area with highly pyrethroid-resistant vectors in rural Burkina Faso: a cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet 392: 569-580.

  • Traore MM, Junnila A, Traore SF, Doumbia S, Revay EE, Kravchenko VD, Schlein Y, Arheart KL, Gergely P and Xue R-D (2020) Large-scale field trial of attractive toxic sugar baits (ATSB) for the control of malaria vector mosquitoes in Mali, West Africa. Malar J 19: 72.

  • Tusting LS, Bisanzio D, Alabaster G, Cameron E, Cibulskis R, Davies M, Flaxman S, Gibson HS, Knudsen J and Mbogo C (2019) Mapping changes in housing in sub-Saharan Africa from 2000 to 2015. Nature 568: 391.

  • Tusting LS, Bottomley C, Gibson H, Kleinschmidt I, Tatem AJ, Lindsay SW and Gething PW (2017) Housing improvements and malaria risk in sub-Saharan Africa: a multi-country analysis of survey data. PLoS Med 14: e1002234.

  • Utzinger J, Tanner M, Kammen DM, Killeen GF and Singer BH (2002) Integrated programme is key to malaria control. Nature 419: 431-431.

  • Utzinger J, Tozan Y and Singer BH (2001) Efficacy and cost effectiveness of environmental management for malaria control. Trop Med Int Health 6: 677-687.

  • Van den Berg H, Gu B, Grenier B, Kohlschmid E, Al-Eryani S, da Silva Bezerra HS, Nagpal BN, Chanda E, Gasimov E and Velayudhan R (2020) Pesticide lifecycle management in agriculture and public health: Where are the gaps? Sci Total Env 742: 140598.

  • Whittaker M and Smith C (2015) Reimagining malaria: five reasons to strengthen community engagement in the lead up to malaria elimination. Malar J 14: 410.

  • WHO (1993) Global malaria control strategy. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

  • WHO (2008) Position statement on integrated vector management. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland WHO (2012) Global plan for insecticide resistance management in malaria vectors, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

  • WHO (2017) Global vector control response 2017-2030. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

  • WHO (2019) World malaria report 2019. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

  • WHO (2020a) The potential impact of health service disruptions on the burden of malaria: a modelling analysis for countries in sub-Saharan Africa. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

  • WHO (2020b) Prequalification Vector Control: Prequalified lists of vector control products. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Available at: https://www.who.int/pq-vector-control/prequalified-lists/en/.

  • Williams YA, Tusting LS, Hocini S, Graves PM, Killeen GF, Kleinschmidt I, Okumu FO, Feachem RG, Tatarsky A and Gosling RD (2018) Expanding the vector control toolbox for malaria elimination: a systematic review of the evidence. Adv Parasit 99: 345-379.

  • Wilson AL, Courtenay O, Kelly-Hope LA, Scott TW, Takken W, Torr SJ and Lindsay SW (2020) The importance of vector control for the control and elimination of vector-borne diseases. PLoS neglected tropical diseases 14: e0007831.

Metrics

All Time Past 365 days Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 0 0 0
Full Text Views 321 281 3
PDF Views & Downloads 72 43 7