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administrative units according to well-defined procedures and regulations. In everyday life numerous obstacles seem to have impeded this machinery, first and fore- most because its staff often turned out less qualified and less motivated for the general good than the manuals prescribe. the main problem of the
termed necessity-induced self-initiative in the way of ensuring sufficient flows of income. This self-initiative out of necessity seems a constituent factor in having motivated some provincial and regional govern- ments towards improvements or ‘reforms’ on a provincial or regional level even when the
’s, al-Jayhānī’s treatise encompassed trade, topography and mirabilia as well as a world map divided into seven climes. 4 Unfortunately, this work is no longer available to us. Whatever motivated al-Balkhī to write the Images of the Climes , al-Muqaddasī described it as follows: Abū Zayd al