Figures
1.1 Map showing cities with major country sanctuaries in Asia Minor, corresponding with Table 1.1 4
2.1 Map of southwest Asia Minor showing the locations of the case studies 91
3.1 Map locating Mylasa and the shrines of Zeus Labraundos and Sinuri 93
3.2 Labraunda. View of the sanctuary, with the split rock in the upper right (photo author 2019) 99
3.3 Labraunda. View of the sanctuary from the southwest and the sacred road. Andron A (Idrieus’s andron) is to the left and the split rock to the right (photo author 2010) 111
3.4 Labraunda. View to the south from the Akropolis Fortress. Four watchtowers (grey squares) share visibility, while Burgaz Kale is over the ridge beyond Tepesar Kale (photo author 2008) 112
3.5 The viewsheds of Mylasa (green) and Labraunda (fuchsia) 114
3.6 Plan of Labraunda in the Hellenistic period. Map after Henry (2017), Figs. 2, 15 116
3.7 Labraunda. Monumental staircase leading to the Middle Terrace (photo author 2008) 118
3.8 Labraunda. View towards Mylasa and the southwest framed by the windows of Andron A; on the right, the view through the central window towards Mylasa, the Sodra Dağı, and part of the sacred road (photos author 2008) 120
3.9 Labraunda. View of the Temple Terrace from the Split Rock. The temple is to right (photo author 2019) 121
3.10 Route of the sacred road from Mylasa to the sanctuary of Zeus at Labraunda. Trajectory after Karlsson (2010), Fig. 7, and Baran (2011) 130
3.11 Mylasa. The labrys on the keystone of the Baltalı Kapı; note the eyes carved into the blades (see Kızıl (2009)) (photo author 2019) 133
3.12 Labraunda. The South Propylon and the end of the sacred road. View towards the south and Mylasa, visible in the plain left of the mountain on the right side of the picture (photo author 2008) 133
3.13 Round altar with double-axe, from Şeftalı Irın, southwest of Mylasa (Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology, photo author 2009) 166
3.14 Small altar with Zeus Labraundos, probably Roman by analogy with Akarca 1959, Pl. XX, no. 3 (Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology, photo author 2009) 166
3.15a–e Hekatomnid and Mylasan coins showing Zeus Labraundos 168
4.1 Map with the environment of the sanctuary of Sinuri 179
4.2 The sanctuary of Sinuri, on the Tarla Tepe hill in the center of the picture, seen from the west (photo author 2010) 184
4.3 Sinuri. Extent of the view from the sanctuary to the west and the Bozdağ in the distance (photo author 2010) 187
4.4 Sinuri. View from the northern ‘acropole’ complex looking west with the sea, the Myndos peninsula and the peaks of Kalymnos visible in the far distance (photo author 2011) 187
4.5 Viewsheds of Mylasa (green), the sanctuary of Sinuri (purple) and ‘acropole’ (fuchsia) 188
4.6 Plan of the sanctuary of Sinuri. After Devambez 1959, 47 and Pedersen 1991, 104 and Fig. 104; orientation assessed by author 189
4.7 Sinuri. View of the sanctuary showing the southeast flank of the temenos wall, the drafted corner is visible (photo author 2010) 190
4.8 Sinuri. South section of the Archaic terrace/temenos wall (photo author 2010) 191
4.9 Southeast corner of the sanctuary with the fourth century temenos wall, showing the ashlar construction with headers and stretchers (photo author 2008) 192
4.10 Sinuri. Archaic gateway with buttresses in the south wall (photo author 2010) 193
4.11 Sinuri. Archaic gateway with mid-fourth century blockage of the entry (photo author 2010) 193
4.12 Sinuri. Central space of the sanctuary, view to the west. The Doric stylobate is in the middle right. The upright blocks belong to the Byzantine basilica (photo author 2010) 195
4.13 Sinuri. The eastern stoa. Red marble block, 118 × 42.5 × 67 cm, carrying I.Sinuri 9, honorific decree for Leon Iasonos et al. concerning the building of a stoa; the well is in the background (photo author 2010) 195
4.14 Sinuri. The eastern stoa. Section of the stylobate, with holes for dovetail clamps (photo author 2011) 196
4.15 The ‘acropole’ complex, c. 450 m north of the sanctuary of Sinuri. Terrace structure. Southwest corner, with polygonal wall (photo author 2011) 198
4.16 The ‘acropole’ complex. Square chamber with threshold in the southern wall (photo author 2011) 198
4.17 The ‘acropole’ complex. Smaller bi-chambered structure north of the terraced structure. Facing east. In the middle is the crosswall separating the two areas (photo author 2011) 199
4.18 The ‘acropole’ complex. Walls and profiled blocks (photo author 2011) 200
4.19 Ceramic concentration in terrace wall near the ‘acropole’ (photo author 2011) 200
4.20 Rock-cut tomb c. 250 m north of the sanctuary of Sinuri (photo author 2011) 201
4.21 Rock-cut feature c. 110 m north of the sanctuary of Sinuri (photo author 2010) 201
4.22 Two images of the white marble block carrying I.Sinuri 16. This heavily damaged block, measuring 100 x 62.5 x 52.5 cm, bears an honorific decree by the syngeneia of Pormounos for [Ou]liades Po[ ... ]. The image on the left shows the text, indicating that this block was set up vertically. The last line states that it is to be erected on the left parastas ([
4.23 Sinuri. Path northeast of the sanctuary, leading onto the area north of the sanctuary; the vaulted tombs from the Roman period are just around the rocks to the right (photo author 2010) 205
4.24 White marble block with the inscription I.Sinuri 2. This block (later used as orthostat), 67 × 130 × 47 cm, bears the dedication of an altar to Sinuri by the seven treasurers (tamiai) of the syngeneia of the Pormounou. Based on this inscription, Louis Robert was able to identify the site as the sanctuary of Sinuri (the block has since been damaged at the top). Its current position reflects its secondary use as an orthostat in the Byzantine basilica (photo author 2008) 208
4.25 Ashlar bearing the inscription I.Sinuri 44. This is the earliest mention of the Pormounou syngeneia (end of second and beginning of third lines), an honorific decree in which Samiades, son of Theodotou, is admitted into the syngeneia (photo author 2010) 217
5.1 Map of Stratonikeia and the environment of Lagina and Panamara 242
5.2 Koranza. Column from the area of the Apollo and Artemis temple, at the edge of the plateau looking NE, across the Hayırlıdere valley to the Gökbel mountains in the background (photo author 2009) 248
5.3 Lagina. View of the temple from the southwest stoa (photo author 2008) 257
5.4 Lagina. View from the south with the Hayırlıdere valley to the northeast, and the rising Gökbel mountains further north – the Archaic site of Hacibayramlar Höyük was located in the foothills across the valley. The sanctuary of Hekate is visible in the clearing to the left (photo author 2009) 262
5.5 View from Lagina towards the east-northeast across the Hayırlıovasi area and the Marsyas valley (photo author 2009) 263
5.6 The combined viewsheds of Stratonikeia (green), Lagina (fuchsia) and Panamara (violet); together these encompassed the known incorporated communities, except Kurbet Köy (possibly Koliorga) to the west 265
5.7 Lagina. View across the sanctuary from the northwest corner to the east with the Oyuklu mountains in the distance (photo author 2011) 267
5.8 Plan of the sanctuary complex of Hekate at Lagina by the first century BC (plan after Z. Gider, in Gider (2012), with permission) 269
5.9 Aerial photo of the propylon, seen from the east (photo courtesy of Prof. Ahmet Tırpan) 270
5.10 Lagina. From the northwest corner of the stoa complex. The theatron is visible in the lower right, the temple in the center (photo author 2008) 271
5.11 Lagina. Doric columns with smoothed lower surfaces; the theatron is visible in the background (photo author 2008) 271
5.12 Lagina. Altar seen from the temple, with marble paving ending in the rubble core supporting the steps (photo author 2009) 272
5.13 Lagina. Coffered ceiling fragments, with reliefs of a double-axe and a trident (photo author 2009) 274
5.14a–c Lagina. Temple of Hekate. a) Plan, showing 8 × 13 Corinthian columns and 2 Ionic columns in antis in the pronaos (after Tırpan and Söğüt 2007, 401 Resim 1); b) One of the Corinthian capitals from the temple (photo author 2019) c) Aerial overview from the north (photos a and c courtesy of Prof. Ahmet Tırpan; photo b author 2019) 276
5.15 Lagina. The central part of the ‘west’ temple frieze, showing Hekate in the midst of a Gigantomachy (Istanbul Archaeological Museum, photo author 2009) 278
5.16 Lagina. Section of the ‘north frieze’, showing Amazons and Greek soldiers in amicable relations, with Hekate to the right, holding a phiale (photo courtesy of Prof. Ahmet Tırpan) 278
5.17 Lagina. The southwest krepis of the temple. Note the ‘graffiti’, including several outlines of feet (photo author 2011) 282
5.18 Lagina. View of the propylon seen from the altar; the Akdağ peak is visible through the doorframe; to the right the monument base for Menekles and Epainetos (photo author 2019) 284
5.19 Lagina. Temple of Hekate looking southeast, with Aladağ peak in the distance (photo author 2009) 285
5.20 Map of the sacred road between Stratonikeia and Lagina. Trajectory after Söğüt (2012), Map 1 286
5.21 Sacred road to Lagina, south of Yeşilbağilar (photo author 2009) 287
5.22 Lagina. ‘Sacred pool’ or spring-fed reservoir near the sacred road (photo author 2009) 287
5.23 The North Gate of Stratonikeia, seen from the northwest; the archway is from the later second century AD. Part of the sacred road is visible to the left, next to the sarcophagus (photo author 2008) 289
5.24 Section of the Hymnode inscription on the wall of the bouleuterion, I.Stratonikeia 1101. Instructions for the hymnodes during the festivals of Zeus Panamaros and Hekate, third century AD (photo author 2008) 295
5.25 The social network of Lagina. Map and table show the 57 cities listed on the temple walls of Lagina (I.Stratonikeia 508) recognizing the asylia, following the Senatus consultum de Stratonicensibus of 81 BC (I.Stratonikeia 505) and participating in the Hekatesia-Romaia festivals 314
5.26 Lagina. Monument for Menekles and Epainetos, I.Stratonikeia 1426–1427, seen from the propylon with the temple and altar in the background (photo author 2019) 321
5.27 Stratonikeian coins showing Hekate and Zeus 322
6.1 Panamara and environment, with an indication of the sacred road. 332
6.2 Panamara, seen from the Bencik Dağı northwest of the sanctuary, looking south. The sanctuary is near the bare spot on the hill just right of the center. Left of Panamara is the Kapız valley with the Koca Öküz hills on the opposite side; the Marsyas valley is in the far left (photo author 2011) 334
6.3 Panamara. Looking south towards the Gebeneadere valley, with several architectural fragments in the foreground; the Marçat Dağları is in the background (photo author 2010) 339
6.4 Sketch by A. Laumonier of the sanctuary at Panamara (BCH 60 (1936), Plate 41) 340
6.5 Panamara. View from the southwest; the sanctuary terraces and temple platform are visible at the top of the hill, to the right of the electricity mast (photo author 2011) 342
6.6 Panamara. Seen from the north, with the Marçat hills rising in the distance. The electricity mast just to the right of the top marks the northwest corner of the sanctuary (photo author 2011) 343
6.7 Panamara. View to the northeast, with the abandoned village of Bağyaka and the strip mines. The Madranbaba range is just visible in the distance (photo author 2011) 343
6.8 Panamara. View from the steep east side of the sanctuary. The Koca Öküz hills are in the near foreground, with the Marsyas valley and the southern perimeter of Yatağan (east of Stratonikeia) visible just beyond. In the distance are the northern slopes of the Oyuklu hills (photo author 2010) 347
6.9 Panamara. View from the shrine towards the east-southeast. The southern extent of the Koca Öküz is visible in the foreground. The Marsyas valley is on the other side of these (not visible in the picture) with the Oyuklu hills beyond to the left in the far distance (photo author 2008) 347
6.10 Panamara. View of the top showing schist walls with mounds of marble and schist blocks. The white marble block to the left in the foreground is a remaining fragment of I.Stratonikeia 257b, a priestly inscription from the later second century AD (photo author 2008) 349
6.11 Panamara. Rustic orthogonal wall at the southwest corner of the temenos (photo author 2010) 353
6.12 Panamara. Exposed schist and ashlar walls with fragments of amphora and tile (photo author 2010) 353
6.13 Panamara. Rock and schist wall along the northeastern perimeter (photo author 2010) 354
6.14 Panamara, north side. Exposed section of the north temenos wall (photo author 2010) 354
6.15 Panamara. Escarpment along the steep southeast edge of the hilltop (photo author 2010) 355
6.16 Panamara. Hilltop with scattered architectural fragments, ceramics, a coffer, and roughly in the center the lower part of the inscription I.Stratonikeia 220a, now further broken (photo author 2008) 356
6.17 Panamara. Door jamb (?) fragment with two priestly inscriptions from the Imperial period, I.Stratonikeia 240 and 253, now broken at the top (photo author 2008) 356
6.18 Panamara and the large terraced area at the northern part of the sanctuary. In the background is the Bencik Dağı (photo author 2008) 357
6.19 Panamara. Sacred road leading to the large terraced area (photo author 2008) 357
6.20 Panamara. Section of the road, partly terraced as shown here, roughly one kilometer southwest of the sanctuary (photo author 2011) 360
6.21 Panamara. Sections of the sacred way southwest of the sanctuary cut through the rock (photo author 2011) 360
6.22 Panamara. Sections of the sacred way, cut through the rock (photo author 2010) 361
6.23 Panamara. Sections of the sacred way west of the sanctuary (photos author 2010) 361
6.24 Panamara. Built tomb along the sacred road near the sanctuary (photo author 2010) 362
6.25 Panamara. Four adjacent rock-cut tombs along the sacred road west of the sanctuary (photo author 2010) 362
6.26 Panamara. Exposed marble doorway, with a three-faceted frame; the entry is c. 70 cm wide (photo author 2010) 363
6.27 Panamara. Votive coffers, probably for hair dedications. On the left a marble coffer in the northern area near the temenos wall; illustration of such a coffer from Panamara by J. Devillard (photo author 2010; BCH 12 (1888), 480) 369
6.28 Social network of Panamara. Map of the identifiable communities involved in the worship of Zeus at Panamara at different times, testified by inscriptions 390
6.29 Zeus on coins from Stratonikeia and Keramos 400
6.30 Stratonikeian coins showing equestrian Zeus and Hekate 401
Tables
1.1 List of cities and their major country sanctuaries, corresponding to the map in Figure 1.1 4
2.1 Boffo’s nine categories of sanctuaries in Hellenistic Asia Minor, with examples (Boffo 1985) 39
2.2 The framework of analysis 88
3.1 List of political decrees at Labraunda from the Hellenistic period 164
3.2 List of honorific decrees at Labraunda from the Hellenistic period 165
4.1 Hellenistic inscriptions at Labraunda (37 total) and Sinuri (84 total) 231
4.2 Breakdown of the Hellenistic honorific decrees found at Mylasa according to issuing body 237
5.1 Breakdown of inscriptions at Lagina according to type and period 303
6.1 Breakdown of inscriptions at Panamara according to type and period 381