Summary
Wood has been historically used to build traditional boats in Brazil. The present study examined different types of wood used in the boat collection of the Museu Nacional do Mar (Portuguese for National Museum of the Sea). Samples were collected with a Pressler borer and incorporated into the JOIw xylarium. Histological and anatomical descriptions followed usual wood anatomy protocols. Wood of 15 species of low, medium, and high density was microscopically identified. Most of the species are native to forests that surround the waterways where the boats were built, although some were imported from more distant forests. We believe the wood anatomy shows the relationship between human societies and forest resources used in navel carpentry. Additionally, wood surveys like this broaden our knowledge on the cultural heritage, ethnobotanic, and technological properties knowledge, which ultimately contribute to biodiversity conservation.
Introduction
Forests have always played a key role in supplying raw materials to human societies. Notably, wood species have always been used to produce boats, which has resulted in a traditional knowledge historically propagated by human populations on the technological use of forest resources (Melo Júnior & Barros 2017). Studies on wooden boats have interested researchers from different parts of the world, not only in relation to recording cultural heritage, but also to increase what is known about the potential use of the global tree flora (Giachi et al. 2003; Bardet et al. 2004; Capretti et al. 2008; Melo Júnior et al. 2019) that is estimated to be around 60 065 species, of which 8715 occur in Brazil (Beeck et al. 2017). Additionally, this knowledge reflects sociocultural relationships that are associated with the conservation of biodiversity (Albuquerque & Andrade 2002). Naval heritage, represented by traditional wooden boats, can be cited as the most universal part of Brazilian culture, since it integrates different European, American, and African cultures (Museu Nacional do Mar 2008). A large part of this heritage also integrates traditional knowledge brought by the Continental Portuguese and Azoreans with indigenous knowledge about the biological diversity in Brazil, including the use of wood to build boats (Melo Júnior & Barros 2017). Brazil has large expanses of navigable waters, both across its coast and inland, which is reflected in the great diversity of traditional boats linked to landscapes, peoples and ecosystems that symbolize cities, states and regions (Museu Nacional do Mar 2008). Thus, knowledge about wood species used in naval carpentry contributes information about the relationship between traditional populations and forests, ways of managing natural environments, traditional and technological knowledge about wood resources, and cultural significance of woods to fishing communities in the river basins and on the coast of Brazil.
The objective of the present study was to identify and describe the historical woods used to construct traditional boats in Brazil that are safeguarded in the Museu Nacional do Mar (Portuguese for National Museum of the Sea) collection with the goal of better understanding the use of forest resources in traditional naval carpentry.
Material and methods
The examined woods came from the structural components of traditional boats from different Brazilian states (Table 1). All the boats are part of the Museu Nacional do Mar collection in São Francisco do Sul, Santa Catarina, Brazil (Figure 1). This museum has the largest collection of traditional boats in Latin American, including boats from both marine and fluvial landscapes. The collections were authorized by the Instituto do Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico Nacional (IPHAN), the government agency responsible for the management of Brazilian cultural heritage.
Wood species identified in the traditional boats studied, safeguarded at the Museu Nacional do Mar (National Museum of the Sea), São Francisco do Sul, SC, Brazil.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Wood species identified in the traditional boats studied, safeguarded at the Museu Nacional do Mar (National Museum of the Sea), São Francisco do Sul, SC, Brazil.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Wood species identified in the traditional boats studied, safeguarded at the Museu Nacional do Mar (National Museum of the Sea), São Francisco do Sul, SC, Brazil.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Wooden boats of the Brazilian traditional carpentry. (A) Canoa do baixo rio são Francisco; (B) canoa bordada; (C) jangada; (D) bote; (E) canoa baleeira; (F) jangada pantaneira.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Wooden boats of the Brazilian traditional carpentry. (A) Canoa do baixo rio são Francisco; (B) canoa bordada; (C) jangada; (D) bote; (E) canoa baleeira; (F) jangada pantaneira.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Wooden boats of the Brazilian traditional carpentry. (A) Canoa do baixo rio são Francisco; (B) canoa bordada; (C) jangada; (D) bote; (E) canoa baleeira; (F) jangada pantaneira.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
We adopted three classes of boats, using the following terminology: monoxyle boat, which is made of wood from one species, but with separate, mounted pieces that can come from various individuals; single trunk boat, which is made by digging out the trunk of a single tree of a species; and mixed boat, which comprises wood from different species. Additionally, we adopted the following: hull, the body of the boat formed by the pieces that maintain a plane of symmetry that passes through the keel axis; frame, a set of arc-shaped reinforcement pieces, placed transversally to the keel, which shapes the hull of the boat; and deck planking, a set of wooden boards and caulk joints that line the part of the deck exposed to the weather (Navios & Portos 2011).
Wood samples were taken with a Pressler borer. They had a diameter that did not exceed 4 mm and were taken in a way that did not visibly damage the museum boats. Single samples were taken from boats excavated from a single trunk. For the other boats, the samples represented the main component structures (hull, frame and deck planking) and were removed in an unseen location, in order to maintain the aesthetics of the boat (Figure 2). The sample site was filled with a mixture of glue and sawdust. Histological slides were prepared according to the methodology commonly used for wood anatomy (Johansen 1940). The samples were softened in glycerine water, hand-cut with razor blade in the transversal, longitudinal tangential and longitudinal radial sections, stained with an aqueous solution of astra blue-safranin (Bukatsch 1972), mounted in synthetic resin (Paiva et al. 2006) and deposited in the reference wood and slide collection of the of the Universidade da Região de Joinville (JOIw) (Melo Júnior et al. 2014).
Main component structures of the studied boats. (A) Hull; (B) frame; (C) deck planking.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Main component structures of the studied boats. (A) Hull; (B) frame; (C) deck planking.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Main component structures of the studied boats. (A) Hull; (B) frame; (C) deck planking.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
The anatomical descriptions are based on the terminology proposed by the IAWA Committee (1989). The wood was identified by comparing it with the JOIw and BCTw (São Paulo Technological Research Institute) wood collections. Descriptions in the Inside Wood database (InsideWood 2004 onwards, Wheeler et al. 2011) were also consulted. Even though identifications based on wood anatomy are often limited to the genus level, whenever possible we suggest species based on the geographic distribution information in Flora do Brasil (2020). Information on wood density was obtained from Mainieiri & Chimelo (1989) and Lorenzi (1992). Wood density classification follows Coradin et al. (2010): low density <0.550 g/cm3, medium density 0.551 to 0.720 g/cm3 and high density >0.721 g/cm3. Common names of the woods are based on Flora do Brasil (2020) and the origin area of the boats studied.
Results
We identified fifteen wood taxa used in traditional Brazilian boats. Table 1 lists the wood species, density, types of boats and their respective features. Three families represent more than 53% of the species used in the boats studied. Fabaceae was the richest (4 species, 26.6%), followed by Lauraceae and Moraceae (2 species each, 13.3%). The remaining families are represented by one species each (6.6%).
Woods with a low density were recorded in 5 species (33.3%) and 10 boats (66.6%). Wood from Apeiba tibourbou (Malvaceae), Schizolobium parahyba (Fabaceae) and Ficus cestrifolia (Moraceae) was present in monoxyle boats (jangadas) and single trunk boats (canoas bordadas and baiana), totaling 7 boats (20% of the species, 41.2% of the boats). Wood from Cedrela fissilis (Meliaceae) and Araucaria angustifolia (Araucariaceae) was found in boats with a mixed composition, which included 3 canoas baleeiras (13.3% of the species, 17.6% of the boats). Woods with a medium density were recorded in 2 species (13.3%) and 6 boats (35.3%); Clarisia ilicifolia was exclusive to a chalana pantaneira (single trunk boat) (1 boat, 5.9%) and Ocotea sp. was present in canoas baleeiras that were monoxyle (1 boat, 5.9%) and with a mixed composition (4 boats, 23.5%). Woods with a high density were recorded in 8 species: Apuleia leiocarpa, Aspidosperma sp., Astronium sp., Dalbergia nigra, Manilkara dardnoi, Paubrasilia echinata, Sextonia rubra and Terminalia glabrencens (53.3%). They were exclusively used in different types of boats with mixed compositions (8 boats, 47.1%), including bote, canoas baleeiras, canoas de tolda and canoas do baixo rio são francisco.
The results indicate the prevalent use of woods with a low density in monoxyle boats and boats made from a single trunk (41.2%) and woods with medium and high densities in boats with a mixed composition (47.1%). In general, woods with a low density are present in boats less than 6 m long, while those with a high density are in boats greater than 6 m. Woods with a medium density occur equally in boats of both dimensions.
Figures 3–7 illustrate the type of boats studied and the corresponding anatomy of the woods used in Brazilian naval carpentry. The wood anatomy, based on the samples taken from the boats, is described in detail below.
Apeiba tibourbou Aubl. (Malvaceae) [pau-jangada] (Fig. 3A–C)
Growth rings distinct, marked by thick-walled and radially flattened latewood fibres. Vessels diffuse, radial multiples of 2–4, solitary and rare clusters (Fig. 3A); tangential diameter from 115 to 190 μm (155.22 ± 17.22); vessel frequency ⩽5/mm2; reduced appendage at one end; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits alternate, small; vessel-ray pits similar to intervessel pits. Fibres with simple to minutely bordered pits, non-septate, very thin walled (Fig. 3A). Axial parenchyma apotracheal diffuse, diffuse-in-aggregates; scanty paratracheal, vasicentric; in narrow bands or lines up to three cells wide; non-lignified parenchyma forming wide bands; strands of 5–8 cells. Rays: (1–) 3–4 (5–) seriate (Fig. 3B); heterocellular with body ells procumbent, and 2–4 rows of upright and/or square marginal cells (Fig. 3C); aggregate rays present; rays of two distinct sizes; 7–51 cells tall; ranging from 4 to 12 rays/mm. Prismatic crystals in upright and/or square ray cells, and chambered axial parenchyma cells.
Wood of traditional Brazilian boats. (A–C) Apeiba tibourbou; (D–F) Apuleia leiocarpa; (G–I) Araucaria angustifolia. (A, D, G) Transverse section; (B, E, H) tangential longitudinal section; (C, F, I) radial longitudinal section. Scale bars = 200 μm.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Wood of traditional Brazilian boats. (A–C) Apeiba tibourbou; (D–F) Apuleia leiocarpa; (G–I) Araucaria angustifolia. (A, D, G) Transverse section; (B, E, H) tangential longitudinal section; (C, F, I) radial longitudinal section. Scale bars = 200 μm.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Wood of traditional Brazilian boats. (A–C) Apeiba tibourbou; (D–F) Apuleia leiocarpa; (G–I) Araucaria angustifolia. (A, D, G) Transverse section; (B, E, H) tangential longitudinal section; (C, F, I) radial longitudinal section. Scale bars = 200 μm.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Apuleia leiocarpa (Vogel) J.F. Macbr. (Fabaceae) [grapiá] (Fig. 3D–F)
Growth rings indistinct or absent. Vessels diffuse, solitary, radial multiples of 2–4 (Fig. 3D), and rare clusters; tangential diameter from 110 to 180 μm (145.31 ± 15.10); vessel frequency 6–18/mm2; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits alternate, medium; vessel-ray with distinct borders; similar to intervessel pits in size and shape throughout the ray cell. Fibres with simple to minutely bordered pits, non-septate, thin-to thick-walled. Axial parenchyma aliform, lozenge-aliform, winged-aliform, confluent, in narrow bands or lines up to three cells wide (Fig. 3D); strands of 2–4 cells (Fig. 3E). Rays width 1–3 cells (Fig. 3E); all ray cells procumbent; ranging from 4 to 12 rays/mm; All rays, axial parenchyma and vessel elements irregularly storied (Fig. 3E). Silica bodies in ray cells (Fig. 3F).
Araucaria angustifolia (Bert.) O. Kuntze (Araucariaceae) [pinho] (Fig. 3G–I)
Growth rings distinct (Fig. 3G); earlywood to latewood transition gradual (Fig. 3G). Tracheid pitting in radial walls, alternate bi- to pluri-seriate, polygonal. Axial parenchyma absent. Rays exclusively uniseriate (Fig. 3H); homocellular (Fig. 3I); height medium; cross-field pitting araucarioid.
Aspidosperma sp. (Apocynaceae) [peroba]
Growth rings distinct, marked by uniseriate marginal parenchyma lines. Vessels diffuse, almost exclusively solitary (>90%) (Fig. 4A), tangential diameter from 48 to 70 μm (55.12 ± 6.25); vessel frequency 45–60/mm2; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits alternate, vestured, minute, up to 4 μm; vessel-ray pits similar to intervessel pits; vasicentric tracheids present. Fibres with distinctly bordered pits, non-septate, thin-to thick-walled. Axial parenchyma apotracheal diffuse (Fig. 4A), diffuse-in-aggregates (Fig. 4A), and in uniseriate marginal lines; strands of 2–4 cells (Fig. 4B). Rays uniseriate (Fig. 4B) and homocellular with all cells procumbent (Fig. 4C); 4–20 cells tall; ranging from 8 to 12 rays/mm. Prismatic crystals in chambered axial parenchyma cells.
Wood of traditional Brazilian boats. (A–C) Aspidosperma sp.; (D–F) Astronium sp.; (G–I) Cedrela fissilis. (A, D, G) Transverse section; (B, E, H) tangential longitudinal section; (C, F, I) radial longitudinal section. Scale bars = 200 μm.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Wood of traditional Brazilian boats. (A–C) Aspidosperma sp.; (D–F) Astronium sp.; (G–I) Cedrela fissilis. (A, D, G) Transverse section; (B, E, H) tangential longitudinal section; (C, F, I) radial longitudinal section. Scale bars = 200 μm.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Wood of traditional Brazilian boats. (A–C) Aspidosperma sp.; (D–F) Astronium sp.; (G–I) Cedrela fissilis. (A, D, G) Transverse section; (B, E, H) tangential longitudinal section; (C, F, I) radial longitudinal section. Scale bars = 200 μm.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Astronium sp. (Anacardiaceae) [aroeira] (Fig. 4D–F)- Growth rings indistinct or absent. Vessels diffuse, solitary, radial multiples of 2–5, in clusters; tyloses common (Fig. 4D); tangential diameter from 115 to 205 μm (160.14 ± 18.25); vessel frequency 5–20/mm2; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits alternate, medium; vessel-ray pits with much reduced borders to apparently simple, pits rounded or angular. Fibres with simple to minutely bordered pits; septate fibres present; very thick walled (Fig. 4D). Axial parenchyma scanty paratracheal (Fig. 4D), vasicentric, in marginal or in seemingly marginal bands; in strands of 3–4 cells or more. Rays 1–3 seriate, heterocellular with procumbent body cells with mostly 2–4 rows of upright and/or square marginal cells (Fig. 4F); ranging from 4 to 10 rays/mm. Radial canals present (Fig. 4D). Prismatic crystals in upright and/or square ray cells.
Cedrela fissilis Vell. (Meliaceae) [cedro] (Fig. 4G–I)
Growth rings distinct, marked by marginal parenchyma and differences in vessel diameter between latewood and earlywood (Fig. 4G). Wood semi-ring-porous. Vessels solitary and in radial multiples of 2–5; tangential diameter from 115 to 160 μm (147.21 ± 16.20); vessel frequency 1–3/mm2; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits alternate, polygonal; small 4–7 μm; vessel-ray pits similar to intervessel pits. Fibres with simple to minutely bordered pits, non-septate, thin to thick walled. Axial parenchyma apotracheal diffuse, scanty paratracheal, vasicentric, and in marginal bands (Fig. 4G); strands of 5–8 cells. Rays (1–)2–3-seriate (Fig. 4H), heterocellular with procumbent body cells and one row of upright and/or square marginal cells; 6–18 cells tall; ranging from 4 to 6 rays/mm. Prismatic crystals in upright and/or square ray cells.
Clarisia ilicifolia (Spreng.) Lanj. & Rossberg (Moraceae) [janita] (Fig. 5A–C)
Growth ring indistinct or absent. Vessels diffuse, solitary, radial multiples of 2–3 (Fig. 5A), in clusters; tyloses common; tangential diameter from 101 to 245 μm (162.60 ± 35.47); vessel frequency <3/mm2; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits alternate, small; vessel-ray pits with much reduced borders to apparently simple. Fibres with simple to minutely bordered pits; non-septate, thin to thick-walled. Axial parenchyma vasicentric, confluent, bands more than three cells wide (Fig. 5A); strands of 2–4 cells. Rays width 4–6 seriate (Fig. 5B), uniseriate rays, heterocellular with body cells procumbent, and 3–5 rows of upright and/or square marginal cells (Fig. 5C); ranging from 4 to 10 rays/mm. Prismatic crystals in non-chambered axial parenchyma cells. Laticifers present.
Wood of traditional Brazilian boats. (A–C) Clarisia ilicifolia; (D–F) Dalbergia nigra; (G–I) Ficus cestrifolia. (A, D, G) Transverse section; (B, E, H) tangential longitudinal section; (C, F, I) radial longitudinal section. Scale bars = 200 μm.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Wood of traditional Brazilian boats. (A–C) Clarisia ilicifolia; (D–F) Dalbergia nigra; (G–I) Ficus cestrifolia. (A, D, G) Transverse section; (B, E, H) tangential longitudinal section; (C, F, I) radial longitudinal section. Scale bars = 200 μm.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Wood of traditional Brazilian boats. (A–C) Clarisia ilicifolia; (D–F) Dalbergia nigra; (G–I) Ficus cestrifolia. (A, D, G) Transverse section; (B, E, H) tangential longitudinal section; (C, F, I) radial longitudinal section. Scale bars = 200 μm.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Dalbergia nigra (Vell.) Fr. Allem. (Fabaceae) [jacarandá-da-bahia] (Fig. 5D–F)
Growth rings distinct marked by a band of marginal parenchyma (Fig. 5D). Vessels diffuse, predominantly solitary and in radial multiples of 2–6 (Fig. 5D); tangential diameter from 150 to 230 μm (172.41 ± 20.32); vessel frequency 2–5/mm2; gums and other deposits in heartwood vessels; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits alternate, vestured, 7–10 μm; vessel-ray pits similar to intervessel pits. Fibres with simple to minutely bordered pits, non-septate, very thick-walled. Axial parenchyma diffuse, diffuse-in-aggregates, scanty paratracheal, vasicentric, aliform, confluent, unilateral paratracheal, in narrow bands or lines up to three cells wide and in marginal uniseriate lines (Fig. 5D); strands of 2 cells. Rays–2–3 seriate (Fig. 5E); homocellular with all cells procumbent (Fig. 5F); 3–12 cells tall; ranging from 9 to 14 rays/mm. Prismatic crystals in chambered axial parenchyma cells.
Ficus cestrifolia Schott ex Spreng. (Moraceae) [figueira] (Fig. 5G–I)
Growth rings indistinct or absent. Vessels diffuse; solitary, in radial multiples of 2–4 (Fig. 5G), and a few in clusters; tangential diameter from 130 to 165 μm (145.54 ± 20.73); vessel frequency 2–5/mm2; tyloses common; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits alternate, oval to polygonal; large (⩾10 μm); vessel-ray pits with reduced borders and irregular shape. Fibres with simple to minutely bordered pits; non-septate; thin to thick-walled. Axial parenchyma in bands composed of more than three cells wide (Fig. 5G); strands of 4–8 cells. Rays 1–4 seriate (Fig. 5H); heterocellular, with body cells procumbent and one row of upright and/or square marginal cells (Fig. 5I); 9–28 cells tall; ranging from 4 to 12 rays/mm. Prismatic crystals present in chambered axial and radial parenchyma cells.
Manilkara sp. (Sapotaceae) [maçaranduba] (Fig. 6A–C)
Growth rings indistinct or absent. Vessels diffuse; in radial multiples of 2–5 common (Fig. 6A); tangential diameter from 100 to 205 μm (146.85 ± 18.12); vessel frequency 20–40/mm2; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits alternate, small; vessel-ray pits with much reduced borders to apparently simple. Fibres with simple to minutely bordered pits; non-septate, thin to thick-walled. Axial parenchyma in narrow bands or lines up to three cells wide (Fig 6A); strands of 5–8 cells. Rays 1–3 seriate; heterocellular, with body cells procumbent with mostly 2–4 rows of upright and/or square marginal cells; ranging >12 rays/mm; locally uniseriate. Prismatic crystals in chambered axial parenchyma cells.
Wood of traditional Brazilian boats. (A–C) Manilkara sp.; (D–F) Ocotea sp.; (G–I) Paubrasilia echinata. (A, D, G) Transverse section; (B, E, H) tangential longitudinal section; (C, F, I) radial longitudinal section. Scale bars = 200 μm.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Wood of traditional Brazilian boats. (A–C) Manilkara sp.; (D–F) Ocotea sp.; (G–I) Paubrasilia echinata. (A, D, G) Transverse section; (B, E, H) tangential longitudinal section; (C, F, I) radial longitudinal section. Scale bars = 200 μm.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Wood of traditional Brazilian boats. (A–C) Manilkara sp.; (D–F) Ocotea sp.; (G–I) Paubrasilia echinata. (A, D, G) Transverse section; (B, E, H) tangential longitudinal section; (C, F, I) radial longitudinal section. Scale bars = 200 μm.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Ocotea sp. (Lauraceae) [canela] (Fig. 6D–F)
Growth rings distinct, marked by thick-walled and radially flattened latewood fibres (Fig 6D). Vessels diffuse, solitary and in radial multiples of 2–3; tangential diameter from 85 to 120 μm (112.33 ± 23.27); vessel frequency 11–14/mm2; gums and other deposits in heartwood vessels; tyloses common; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits alternate, large ⩾ 10 μm; vessel-ray pits with much reduced borders to apparently simple. Fibres with simple to minutely bordered pits, septate fibres present, thin-to thick-walled. Axial parenchyma scanty paratracheal parenchyma; strands of 3–4 cells. Rays (1–)2–3-seriate (Fig. 6E), heterocellular with body cells procumbent, and one row of upright and/or square marginal cells; 10–28 cells tall; ranging from 7 to 10 rays/mm; disjunctive ray parenchyma cells present. Silica bodies in ray cells. Oil and/or mucilage cells associated with ray (Fig. 6E) and axial parenchyma.
Paubrasilia echinat (Lam.) Gagnon, H.C. Lima & G.P. Lewis (Fabaceae) [pau-brasil] (Fig. 6G–I)
Growth ring indistinct or absent. Vessels diffuse, solitary and in radial multiples of 2–4 (Fig. 6G); gums and other deposits in heartwood vessels; tangential diameter from 50 to 100 μm (73.62 ± 9.12); vessel frequency 20–40/mm2; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits alternate, small, vestured; vessel-ray pits with distinct borders; similar to intervessel pits in size and shape throughout the ray cell. Fibres with simple to minutely bordered pits; non-septate, thin to thick-walled. Axial parenchyma vasicentric, aliform, lozenge-aliform, confluent, in marginal or in seemingly marginal bands; strands of 2 cells. Rays 1–3 seriate (Fig. 6H); homocellular with all cells procumbent (Fig. 6I); ranging from 4 to 12 rays/mm. Prismatic crystals in chambered axial parenchyma cells.
Schizolobium parahyba (Vell.) Blake (Fabaceae) [garapuvu] (Fig. 7A–C)
Growth ring distinct, marked by thick-walled and radially flattened latewood fibres and axial parenchyma in marginal bands. Vessels diffuse, predominantly solitary (Fig. 7A) and in radial multiples of 2; tangential diameter >200 μm (250.32 ± 11.05); vessel frequency <5 vessels/mm2; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits alternate, medium, vestured; vessel-ray pits with distinct borders; similar to intervessel pits in size and shape throughout the ray cell. Fibres with simple to minutely bordered pits; non-septate thin- to thick-walled (Fig. 7A). Axial parenchyma vasicentric, aliform, in marginal with 1–3 cells wide; strands of 3–4 cells. Rays 4–10 seriate (Fig. 7B); homocellular with all cells procumbent; ranging > 4 rays/mm. Prismatic crystals in procumbent ray cells.
Wood of traditional Brazilian boats. (A–C) Schizolobium parahyba; (D–F) Sextonia rubra; (G–I) Terminalia glabrencens. (A, D, G) Transverse section; (B, E, H) tangential longitudinal section; (C, F, I) radial longitudinal section. Scale bars = 200 μm.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Wood of traditional Brazilian boats. (A–C) Schizolobium parahyba; (D–F) Sextonia rubra; (G–I) Terminalia glabrencens. (A, D, G) Transverse section; (B, E, H) tangential longitudinal section; (C, F, I) radial longitudinal section. Scale bars = 200 μm.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Wood of traditional Brazilian boats. (A–C) Schizolobium parahyba; (D–F) Sextonia rubra; (G–I) Terminalia glabrencens. (A, D, G) Transverse section; (B, E, H) tangential longitudinal section; (C, F, I) radial longitudinal section. Scale bars = 200 μm.
Citation: IAWA Journal 44, 1 (2023) ; 10.1163/22941932-bja10094
Sextonia rubra (Mez) van der Werff (Lauraceae) [louro-vermelho] (Fig. 7D–F)
Growth ring indistinct. Vessels diffuse; in radial multiples of 2, and rarely solitary; tangential diameter from 100 to 200 μm (132.47 ± 14.81); vessel frequency 5–20/mm2; tyloses common (Fig. 7D); perforation plates simple; intervessel pits alternate, large; vessel-ray pits with much reduced borders to apparently simple: pits rounded or angular. Fibres with simple to minutely bordered pits; non-septate; thin- to thick-walled. Axial parenchyma vasicentric, confluent (Fig. 7D); strands to 5–8 cells. Rays 1–3 seriate; heterocellular with body cells procumbent, and one row of upright and/or square marginal cells (Fig. 7F); ranging from 4 to 10 rays/mm. Oil and/or mucilage cells associated with axial parenchyma (Fig. 7F).
Terminalia glabrencens Mart. (Combretaceae) [pequi] (Fig. 7G–I)
Growth ring indistinct. Vessels diffuse, solitary and in radial multiples of 2–3 (Fig. 7G); gums and other deposits in some heartwood vessels; tangential diameter from 50 to 100 μm (81.42 ± 10.51); vessel frequency 5–20/mm2; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits alternate, medium; vessel-ray pits with distinct borders; similar to intervessel pits. Fibres with simple to minutely bordered pits; septate fibres present; thin- to thick-walled. Axial parenchyma aliform, lozenge-aliform (Fig. 7G), confluent; strands of 5–8 cells. Rays exclusively uniseriate (Fig. 7H); homocellular with all ray cells upright and/or square.
Discussion
Confirmation of taxa
Studies involving historical woods are complex since the geographic origin of a certain heritage asset may not correspond to the real geographic distribution of the wood species used as raw material for its production. This fact is explained by the exchange of wood and its associated knowledge between distinct human groups. Therefore, the confirmation of the taxa is given through the crossing over anatomical characteristics of diagnosis from the reference collections within records of local biodiversity, information related to the morphological dimension of the tree based on the compatibility with the nature of the object studied, the current geographic distribution of the species and records of information of an ethnobotanical nature, sometimes contained in historical archives and in the cataloguing sheets of the listed collection belonging to the institution for the safeguarding of such wooden heritage. As an example of this multifaceted process, it is possible to mention the use of Cedrela fissilis (cedro) wood in the mixed vessel (canoa baleeira) originated in the state of Santa Catarina, southern Brazil. This species characteristically presents distinct growth rings, marked by marginal parenchyma and differences in vessel diameter between latewood and earlywood, forming semi-ring-porous and large diameter vessels in the earlywood. Although another species of the same genus (Cedrela odorata) shows as wide geographic distribution as Cedrela fissilis, occurring in almost the entire Brazilian territory (Flora do Brasil 2020), the wood determination as Cedrela fissilis was chosen as it is the only one with a record of occurrence in the region of origin of the vessel, according to floristic and phytosociological data shown by the forest inventory of the state of Santa Catarina (Vibrans et al. 2013). On the other hand, it was chosen to present the genus as the identification limit for woods with very similar anatomical structure, together with the occurrence of two or more species of the same genus in the region of origin of the vessel, such as the case of Aspidosperma (peroba), Astronium (aroeira), Manilkara (maçaranduba) and Ocotea (canela) (Flora do Brasil 2020).
Technological features of identified woods and comparison with woods used in naval carpentry
The use of wood in naval carpentry involves selecting different species based on mechanical stress, local environmental navigation conditions, and amount each part of the boat is exposed to water. Additionally, many components are not directly in contact or continuously in contact with water; the external part of the hull is subject to being encrusted by marine organisms; the high level of salt in contact with the wood impedes fungi decomposers and xylophagous organisms; and the paint used on boats preserves the wood (Giachi et al. 2003). Thus, beyond the abundant amount of wood in Brazilian forests, the woods used to build boats need to have three important properties: lightness, resistance and durability. Light and low resistant woods are generally used as secondary parts, such as for lining, planking, oars, masts and poles, while heavy woods are used for structural parts of boats (Couto 1985). However, we found that woods with a low density were used to construct entire boats (jangadas and canoes made from one single trunk), although these boats are small compared to those that have woods with a high density.
The high diversity of Fabaceae species in the Neotropical Region (Beeck et al. 2017) and, therefore, the Brazilian flora (Giuliette et al. 2005), as well as the large natural stocks of these species in forests (Vibrans et al. 2013) and the high density of their woods (Mainieri & Chimelo 1989), explain the common use of these woods in the boats. On the other hand, although the family Lauraceae is equally important in the Brazilian flora (Vibrans et al. 2013) and commonly present in boats, the low number of species observed could be due to the limitation of using wood anatomy to differentiate its species (Richter 1981); only Sextonia rubra and Ocotea sp. were identified in this study. Additionally, it has been suggested that the presence of oils/resins in Lauraceae wood (Metcalfe & Chalk 1985) increases the resistance of the wood to attacks by degrading agents, which contributed to their recurrent use in naval carpentry. Analogously, an archaeobotanical study of woods permanently submersed in fluvial water for around 2250 years found greater structural preservation of the xylem in Handroanthus sp. (Bignoniaceae) due to the high impregnation of compounds in the axial and radial parenchyma cells and lapachol in the vessels (Melo Júnior et al. 2016).
Geographic distribution and cultural aspects of wood species
Information about the geographic distribution of the identified woods indicate that the master boat builders used wood that was almost entirely from forests in the ecosystems in the state where the boat was built. Of the 15 woods identified, three species (Dalbergia nigra, Manilkara sp. and Paubrasilia echinata) are found in the Atlantic Forest in the states of Alagoas, Bahia and Sergipe (Carvalho 1997; Almeida Júnior 2015; Lima 2017), five species (Aspidosperma sp., Cedrela fissilis, Ficus cestrifolia, Ocotea sp. and Schizolobium parahyba) occur in Atlantic Forest in the states of Santa Catarina and Bahia (Quinet et al. 2015; Castelo et al. 2020; Flores 2020; Pederneiras et al. 2020; Romão et al. 2020), one species (Astronium sp.) occurs in the Cerrado and Atlantic Forest in the state of Bahia (Silva-Luz et al. 2020), and three species (Apeiba tibourbou, Apuleia leiocarpa and Terminalia glabrencens) occur in the Caatinga, Cerrado and Atlantic Forest in the states of Alagoas, Bahia, Pernambuco and Sergipe (Lima 2015; Marquete & Loiola 2015; Colli-Silva 2020). Only three of the species occur outside of the state where the boat was built: Araucaria angustifolia, which is found in montane mixed ombrophilous forest (Ignanci & Dorneles 2020); and Clarisia ilicifolia and S. rubra, which are distributed in Amazonia (Quinet et al. 2015; Teixeira & Machado 2020). The wood of Araucaria angustifolia could have ended up at the coast due to the intense exploitation of wood in the interior of Santa Catarina State by sawmills established since the colonial period (Hoff & Simioni 2004). Further, Clarisia ilicifolia could have been transported on the rivers in the Pantanal region in the Central-West Region of Brazil, and Sextonia rubra could have been transported along an important commercial river route that existed in the region starting in the 16th century and was used by the Portuguese Crown (Camelo Filho 2005; Souza & Caldas 2009).
Naval carpentry in Brazil involves the use of a high diversity of wood species (Gonzaga 2010), among which Dalbergia nigra (jacarandá-da-bahia), Ocotea catharinensis (louro), Paubrasilia echinata (pau-brasil) and Aspidosperma macrocarpum (pequiá) were exploited by colonial societies since the 16th century to supply shipyards in Salvador (Bahia, Brazil) and Lisboa (Portugal) (Dias 2010). Many woods were also used to repair ships from Europe that moored along coastal Brazil, including Nectandra sp. and Ocotea sp. (canela), Cedrela fissilis (cedro), Ficus sp. (Figueira) and Araucaria brasiliana (pinho) (Hutter 1986). Historical sources indicate that the wood of Araucaria angustifolia (pinho), from Santa Catarina, was used to repair boats starting in the year 1500 (Hoff & Simioni 2004).
The diversity of woods used in boats is high. Building simple monoxyle boats, such as canoes, has occurred since the colonial period and was considered an advanced technical naval activity in Brazil, since carpenters were required to find the tree in the forest, cut it down, prepare the trunk and transport the canoe from the forest to the ocean (Cabral 2014). According to Hutter (1986), species in the genus Ficus (F. glabra and F. doliaria) are cited as primary materials to produce canoes. The use of Ficus cestrifolia in naval carpentry is not mentioned in the literature, but it is assumed to have been locally used based on the abundance of the tree along coastal Santa Catarina (Lorenzi 2000). Great emphasis is given to the prevalent use of Schizolobium parahyba (guapuruvu) wood in naval carpentry for canoes in various fishing communities on coastal Brazil, especially in the states of Santa Catarina, São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro (Miranda & Hanazaki 2008; Santos et al. 2009). Although it has low resistance and durability to weather, the wood of Apeiba tibourbou (pau-jangada) is highly buoyant (Paula & Alves 2007) and cited as being very important in the production of small fishing boats along the coast of the Northeast Region of Brazil (Cascudo 1964), notably the jangadas made by the fishing communities in the state of Bahia (Andrade et al. 2016). Cedrela sp. (cedro) and Dalbergia nigra (jacarandá-da-bahia) wood are also mentioned as being used to build boats along coastal Brazil (Gonzaga 2006).
It is very possible that the wide use of some wood species in naval carpentry contributed to the reduction in their populations in nature (e.g., Paubrasilia echinata is endangered) (Conselho Nacional de Conservação da Flora 2017). This may have intensified due to royal decrees to ensure the Portuguese Crown could exclusively exploit the wood of certain Brazilian species, such as Calophyllum brasiliensis–Calophyllaceae (olandi), Mezilaurus navalium–Lauraceae (tapinhoã), Mezilaurus itauba–Lauraceae (itaúba-preta) and Hymenaea stignocarpa–Fabaceae (jatobá) (Gonzaga 2010), because the forests in Portugal had been exploited since the XII century and there was a scarcity of resources (Cabral 2008).
We conclude that the historical use of wood in traditional Brazilian naval carpentry is associated with the selection of species whose structure and density offers lightness, resistance and durability. The diversity of wood is strongly related to its offer in the natural ecosystems linked to the region of origin of the boats, denoting the knowledge of boat makers about the technological use of wood. The recording of this knowledge is important to preserve cultural heritage.
Email: joao.melo@univille.br
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Santa Catarina Research Support Fundation [FAPESC TR16/17] and the Research Support Fund of the Universidade da Região de Joinville.
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Footnotes
Edited by Marcelo R. Pace