Abstract
Wooden ceilings were among the earliest wooden constructions in wooden houses, and stone and brick buildings. In Austria, a special type of wooden ceiling is known as the Riemenbalkendecke. In Waidhofen, in the Ybbs region, these constructions are decorated with chip carvings, year numbers, and letters. There has been no systematic study on this type of ceiling in Austria. In this study, all houses in Waidhofen an der Ybbs built before 1900 were surveyed, and their ceiling constructions described. Riemenbalkendecken decorated with chip carvings and moldings appeared in 1465 CE and lasted for almost 300 years. The number of carved years was verified using dendrochronological dating. Different chip carving patterns were identified. The letters on ten ceilings can be attributed to the initials of the house owners at the time the ceiling was installed. None of the chip carvings can be attributed to ornaments that were common at the time. The art of the chip carvings on the wooden ceilings represents a special language of form.
1 Introduction
Waidhofen an der Ybbs is a medieval town in Lower Austria (see Fig. 1) that was first mentioned in 1186 CE (Maier 2006). For centuries, it was a town that thrived in ironworking and trade in provisions with the nearby Erzberg, a region in Styria where iron was mined. Knife blades and scythes produced in this region are found in many European countries. The wealth of Waidhofen’s inhabitants can still be seen on the facades of their houses. The oldest buildings date back to the Middle Ages. As for the interior, only a few wooden ceilings survived during this period and only a few have been documented to date (Dehio 2003). Dehio (2003) described protected buildings in Austria and did not provide detailed information on interior structures, especially when they were hidden behind plaster (which was partly the case in Waidhofen). There is no documentation of the appearance of chip carvings, dates, or letters on the ceilings (Lichtenschopf 2022).
The location of the city of Waidhofen an der Ybbs within Austria
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10032
The ceiling structure refers to the load-bearing beams that support the floor above. However, these beams and boards also form the top of the room and can be decorated accordingly (Bouticourt 2016). Grabner et al. (2016) described the technical designs and temporal variabilities of wooden ceilings in Austria. The terms used were based on folkloristic names that are common in Austria (Sarne 1977). Three main types of ceiling constructions are described. As there are no common translations for the different types of ceilings available, and the constructions differ from region to region, German words were used.
(A) Balkendecke (boarded ceiling, Fig. 2A): Timber beams bridge two walls. The upper part was covered with boards and laid at right angles to the beam. The boards are fastened with wooden or iron nails. This was the simplest and earliest method of creating wooden ceilings.
(B) Riemenbalkendecke (parallel board and joist ceiling, Fig. 2B): Wooden beams, specially shaped so that boards running parallel to them can be tapped into them, bridge two walls. Boards are often fastened with pegs. Additionally, one (or more) girders (perpendicular to the joists) supported the structure.
(C) Dippelbaumdecke (baulk ceiling Fig. 2C): Partially hewn logs bridge the walls, lying side by side. The entire ceiling was covered by logs, and no boards were required.
Sketch of the three most common ceiling constructions in Austria. A — Balkendecke (boarded ceiling); B — Riemenbalkendecke (parallel board and joist ceiling); C — Dippelbaumdecke (baulk ceiling)
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10032
In Waidhofen, from the 15th to the 18th centuries, only the Riemenbalkendecke and Balkendecke types are known (Lichtenschopf 2022). Wooden ceilings in the Ybbs Valley (the region around Waidhofen) are of particular interest because of the chip carvings, letters, and dates carved into the beams. However, this has not yet been systematically studied. The only study of carved ceilings with a systematic approach, but limited to Upper Austria, dates back to 1977 CE (Sarne 1977). However, no more recent studies have been conducted. The wooden ceiling constructions and their decorations have so far only been mentioned in connection with the art historical description of the buildings in which they are located and have thus escaped systematic investigation, including the most important source, the art historical guide “Dehio” (Dehio 2003). Zelinka (1870) named the 549 houses in Waidhofen and its suburbs. These buildings have the current potential for the presentation of a decorative Riemenbalkendecke.
Figure 3 shows the main elements of the ceiling construction: girders, joists, and boards. There are three visible surfaces on the girder: the bottom surface and two side surfaces. This is the central beam and is often the eye-catcher, as it is the first to be seen when someone enters the room and is therefore in a prominent position. This beam is typically used for decorative purposes. Dates and letters are often carved into them (Lichtenschopf 2022).
Next to the girder, joists are the most important elements of decoration, as they often have carved elements but usually no dates or letters. The boards are usually not carved. If the entire ceiling was covered with paintings, the boards were painted, too.
In chip carving, patterns are drawn on wood, for example, with a compass and pencil, and then sawn out or cut using sharp knives. The result is a deepened pattern that leaves a pleasing impression because of its frequent repetition (Schukowitz 1897). These carvings can be found — as in Waidhofen — in other regions on various tools, furniture, doors, and building elements (Grunow 1889; Lichtwark 1894). Grunow (1889) described a chest with a chip carving dated to 1333 CE in southern France and other pieces of furniture from Italy (Florence) a little later. For a chest from Italy, Grunow (1889) discussed the similarity between eight-pointed stars and Gothic tracery ornaments. Brinckmann (1894) described this connection with ornaments for northern Germany. However, he mentioned that pieces of chip carving were rarely found before the 17th century in northern Germany, which he later described as the center of chip carving. He mentioned a chest in Hamburg, dated 1580 CE, as the oldest known piece of chip carving with ornaments. Brinckmann (1894) discussed chip carving as a technique used in the German-speaking Alps (Tyrol) during the late Gothic period (15th century). Unfortunately, there have been no modern studies of carvings and motifs in German-speaking countries. The only known works are from Great Britain (Hall 2005) — although interpretations of the motifs may differ.
An ornamented Riemenbalkendecke with the main structural elements — girder, joists and boards. Dated to 1676 CE — in the center of the girder
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10032
This study aims to describe the existing wooden ceilings in Waidhofen. The main focus was on the type of ceiling construction and decorative elements, especially chip carvings and beveling. To evaluate possible formal developments, proven construction dates are necessary.
2 Materials and Methods
The starting point was the description of 1870 CE (Zelinka 1870) and the art historical guide “Dehio” (Dehio 2003). It describes approximately 25 ceilings in protected buildings. As only a few houses are protected, and almost all of them are in use today, information from neighbors, colleagues, and the local museum association was of great importance. It was possible to visit all the houses within the town center. Historical information about the remodeling of the room, possible restoration of the ceilings, and anything else that can be associated with the ceiling has been provided by the current occupants or owners of the house. In many cases, the construction of the ceiling is unclear, as the ceiling soffits are plastered and only the existence of the girder (usually also plastered) can be seen. It was not possible to remove the plasterwork from the surveyed houses. Only the ceilings with visible surfaces were assessed.
The ceiling structure and its components were measured and photographed, and all the decorative motifs, carved letters, and dates were described and listed. Letters and dates (carved years) were also identified. An attempt was made to identify the owner (initials) of the house at the time of its construction by means of the Waidhofen land register (Richter 2022), which in most cases dates back to 1649 CE (Municipal Archives, land register 1649, 1/94), and in some cases to 1591 CE (Municipal Archives, land register 1591, 1/90).
Dendrochronological dating was performed on some of the ceilings to verify the given dates. Usually, it is almost impossible to find waney edges (bark rings) on the lower, accessible surfaces of such constructions (see Section 3.1, Dating of the ceilings, and Fig. 4). The girder, especially the joists, shows waney edges on the upper side that cannot be assessed in intact ceilings. Only in the case of restoration is the upper side accessible when the floor construction of the room above has been removed. In the case of demolished ceilings, it was also possible to sample the waney edges. Following the usual procedures of dendrochronology (e.g. Grabner et al. 2018), cores were taken and the ring widths were measured at the cross-section. Additionally, measurements were obtained at the Waidhofen Museum on a translocated ceiling. This construction is only partially displayed; therefore, it is accessible from all sides. The cross sections were sanded on-site, and the measurements were made on digital images (for a methodological description see Klein et al. 2014). The ring widths were then measured to an accuracy of 0.01 mm, using a LINTAB measuring device (www.rinntech.de) or to an accuracy of 0.001 mm using scans or photographs and the WinDendro software (https://regentinstruments.com). The ring width series were dated by calculating statistical values, including t-values (tvBP and tvH) and the Gleichläufigkeit value, using the TSAP software (www.rinntech.com) and visual inspection. Austrian standard chronologies were used for dating (Grabner et al. 2018). Successful dates were those with a t-value greater than approximately 4.0 and a statistically significant Gleichläufigkeit at 0.1% error probability (depending on the length of the series; Eckstein & Bauch 1969, Fowler & Bridge 2017). All data were visually checked. Wood species were determined on the cores or sanded surfaces by microscopic inspection of the cross-section.
The cross section of the dismantled ceiling construction showing the ring orientation and the dendrochronological dates of all elements (some elements were studied twice, but not shown in the graph). The numbers refer to the sample numbers. All dates (except for the girder) are without waney edge. They therefore give the date of the outermost tree ring — the terminus post quem
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10032
3 Results
In total, 100 wooden ceilings were documented in 63 houses in Waidhofen. In addition to single ceiling constructions per house, there were five ceilings in one house, three ceilings in four houses, and two ceilings in 15 houses. Of the 100 ceilings, 92 belonged to the group of Riemenbalkendecke and only eight belonged to the Balkendecke.
67 ceilings (of the 100) had dates (carved year numbers). The year numbers are observed only on the girder and never on the joists. The year numbers were always prominently carved at the center of the beam on one side of the face. Only two ceilings from the 16th century had them on the undersides. The dates vary between 1465 and 1743 CE. In addition, two constructions with a dendrochronological date of 1515 CE and no carved year numbers were added to the database (see Table 1; Oberer Stadtplatz 23 1514 CE without waney edge, terminus post quem; Oberer Stadtplatz 25 1515 CE with waney edge), bringing the total number of analyzed examples of Riemenbalkendecke to 69.
3.1 Dating of the Ceilings
One of the aims is to provide evidence of the year numbers on the girders as a basis for formal analyses. Twelve different ceiling constructions were examined dendrochronologically, of which 11 could be dated. As described above and proven by our results, the best sampling method is the one described above. Unfortunately, no actual restoration occurred; therefore, sampling from the top was not possible. Sampling from the underside of the ceiling was rejected by several owners as it would leave visible traces of sampling. Unfortunately, it was impossible to increase the number of samples. Most of the twelve sampled ceilings were demolished.
A total of 40 samples were collected and analyzed (see Table A1 in the Appendix for details). 31 samples were of Norway spruce (Picea abies) and nine were of Silver fir (Abies alba).
The dendrochronological dates of the eleven successfully dated ceilings varied between 1514 and 1662 CE. The carved year numbers on the girders of all 92 ceilings varies between 1465 and 1743 CE. A waney edge (bark ring) was found in seven ceilings. In four cases, it was possible to compare the carved year numbers with the dendrochronological dates (where the waney edge is present, i.e., the date gives the year in which the tree was felled). For these four cases, the difference was between zero and four years (see Table 1). For the other two cases, there was no waney edge, and the differences were seven and 24 years, respectively. This larger difference can be attributed to the absence of a waney edge (terminus post quem).
Comparison of carved and dendrochronological dates based on the presence of a waney edge
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10032
The importance of the waney edge is well illustrated by the dating of a dismantled Riemenbalkendecke, which is on display in the Waidhofen Museum. The girder (with a carved date of 1666; Stadtplatz 22) was sampled from above with the waney edge present and dated to 1662 CE. The ring width series of joists, boards, and carved boards (Palmette; see below) were dated between 1617 and 1653 CE, without a waney edge. There is a difference of 49 to nine years (to the date of the waney edge: 1662; see Fig. 4). The closest results (to 1666) were for the joists (nine and 19 years difference), and the furthest were for the boards (49 and 44 years difference).
3.2 The Carvings and Beveling
We focused on dated ceiling constructions with carved year numbers or dendrochronological dates. Letters were found on 27 ceilings — three of them had complete names. The letters are strictly positioned at the center of the girder and on one of the two sides. In ten cases, the letters could be identified as the initials of the name of the house owner at the time of construction.
Chip carvings were found on 88 girders and 49 joists (of 100 ceiling constructions). For the 11 ceiling constructions, only the girder was visible, and the joists were hidden (plastered); therefore, they could not be evaluated.
It was possible to identify different patterns of chip carving. The first group consisted of different types of rosettes and ornaments, and the second group consisted of longitudinal carvings (see also Mader 1981):
The six-pointed star (see Fig. 5a) was found on 11 ceilings, dating from 1561 to 1743 CE, exclusively on the girder. A six-pointed star is considered to be the simplest symbol of the sun (Mader 1981). Overall, six-pointed stars are rarely used as decoration.
The motifs of the carvings (on the girder and/or joists). a — six-pointed star; b — seven-pointed star; c — poly star; d — sun-wheel; e — sun-vortex; f — Wolfszahn; g — Palmette; h — Taustab; i — Rundstab
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10032
The seven-pointed star (or seven-pointed sun; see Fig. 5b) consists of seven times a six-pointed star. 18 ceilings with seven-pointed stars were found, dating from 1465 to 1730 CE, all of which were located on girders. A seven-pointed star typically occupies the entire width of the underside of the beam. Together with the sun wheel, a seven-pointed star was the most common decoration. Twelve of these show concentric triangular wreaths and date between 1610 and 1700 CE. Fifteen do not have a concentric triangular wreath and date to the 16th century, although they are sometimes found on more recent ceilings.
The poly star (see Fig. 5c) found on only one ceiling (1617 CE) was located on the girder.
The sun wheel (see Fig. 5d), the second most common symbol, was found on 32 ceilings dated between 1575 and 1743 CE, and was located on the girder. Similar to the seven pointed star, it was placed at the center of the girder. It has different versions: with or without a concentric disc circle or a triangular wreath. During the first half of the 18th century, it was an almost exclusive decoration at the center of girders. During this heyday of the carved ceilings in Waidhofen, the sun wheel appeared together with the Palmette and the triangular belt.
The sun vortex (see Fig. 5e) is present on 35 ceilings dating from 1527 to 1743 CE, which is almost the entire period of ceiling construction in Waidhofen. The sun vortex is a stylized representation of the sun with a swirling halo of rays. It is usually placed on the girder; however, in combination with the Wolfszahn, it can also be found at the joists. They can be oriented clockwise or counterclockwise and can show a triangular wreath or an enveloping disc.
The Wolfszahn (the tooth of the wolf; see Fig. 5f) was found in 22 ceiling constructions between 1465 and 1723 CE. This is a common feature of folk arts. It connects the center of the beam to its end and is sometimes crowned by a half sun vortex. A special form is the bifurcation of the two ends and the overlapping on the side surface of the beam. This frames the chamfered edges (beveling) of beams.
The Palmette (see Fig. 5g) decorates 21 ceilings from 1599 to 1743 CE. The Palmette is a motif in decorative art that, in its most characteristic expression, resembles the fan-shaped leaves of palm trees. This is the most elaborate and expensive form of ceiling decoration. It is worked on a separate wooden board and was nailed to the ceiling (see Fig. 4). It consisted of a Taustab with a fan-shaped decoration at each end, connecting the center of the girder to the end on the wall. The Palmette decorates the girder, but in the most elaborate versions, it also decorates the joists.
The Taustab (see Fig. 5h) was found on only 14 ceilings between 1599 and 1736 CE. They are found exclusively on the underside of the girders of large ceilings with Palmette — motifs with strong profiles. The Taustab has a spiral or braided pattern, based on its dew or knit structure. They provided a special artistic touch to the height gradations of the girders.
The Rundstab (see Fig. 5i) is a semi-circular rod that has only been found twice, in 1612 and 1614 CE. On the Palmette the Rundstab can be seen instead of the Taustab. This seems to have been a predecessor to the Taustab.
In addition to these chip carvings, demarcation bands (ribbons) were observed. They are used to mark the center of the girder, where they frame seven-pointed stars or sun-wheels on the outside. In addition, they delimited several girders towards the wall. In 17th-century ceilings, they are also often found on joists, especially together with the Palmette.
The triangular band (see Fig. 6a) was the most common type and was found in 39 ceilings. The band appeared in 1599 CE and was observed until the disappearance of the Riemenbalkendecke in 1743 CE. When they appear together with the Palmette, special attention is paid to the shapes of the isosceles triangles.
Carved bands on girders and joists. a — triangle-band, b — round notches; c — cube-bands
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10032
The bands of round notches (see Fig. 6b) were less common, appearing on nine ceilings dated between 1612 and 1717 CE. They appeared as two, three and five bands, respectively.
The cube bands (see Fig. 6c) are notched on only four ceilings, dated between 1603 and 1666 CE, and are located on the girders.
In addition to chip carvings, beveling (edging) was observed. In most Riemenbalkendecke constructions, the edges of the beams are formed by profiling (molding; see Fig. 7a). This very common (46 times) type of profiling dates between 1465 and 1743 CE, which is the entire period of the Riemenbalkendecke in Waidhofen.
In some cases, beveling was formed by a simple chamfer (see Fig. 7b). This type was found only five times, between 1515 and 1703 CE.
Bevelling of the edges of the beams which can occur on the girders and joists. a — profiling (moulding); b — chamfer; c — Schuppenstab; d — Zopfmuster
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10032
On two occasions (1666 CE), the beveling was carved in the form of a Schuppenstab (see Fig. 7c).
Nine times, a Zopfmuster was found, comparable to the Taustab but with a carved edge (see Fig. 7d), dated between 1610 and 1717 CE.
3.3 Development of the Motifs and Symbols Over Time
The timespans of the different carvings and bevelings have already been provided above. The development of different types of carving and beveling and the occurrence of different motifs per ceiling construction are shown in Fig. 8. This is based on dendrochronological dates and carved year numbers. The dates for these 69 constructions varied between 1465 and 1743 CE. The earliest symbols and motifs — the seven-pointed star, Wolfszahn, and profiling were found in 1465 CE. However, they were found throughout this period (ending 1743 CE). New types appeared, including chamfering (1505 CE) and sun vortices (1527 CE), followed by the six-pointed star (1561 CE). Major changes in motifs began with the Palmette (1599 CE), which appeared slightly later along with the Taustab, the carved bands, and the Zopfmuster at the edges (only new types listed). This was the most prominent period of the Riemenbalkendecke in Waidhofen, characterized by the Palmette. Most surviving ceiling constructions date back to this period.
The time span of all the symbols and motifs found. Each point represents an occurrence on a ceiling structure — girder or joists
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10032
3.4 Decorations, Inscriptions and House Owners
Only one fully painted ceiling is known. No chip carvings were placed on this ceiling. The dendrochronological date is 1515 CE (without a waney edge; terminus post quem; see Table A1 in the Appendix for details). There are at least two layers of painting (Oral Report, 2021, of the conservator working on the ceiling, Sabine Formanek). The primary painting on the girder is still preserved in remnants. The green vegetal leaf tendrils are framed in black, which is characteristic of the Late Gothic period. The strokes are very freely executed, i.e. not stenciled, and the leaves are organically and plastically scrolled. Individual red flowers were likely inserted into the foliage. Corresponding Late Gothic leaf tendril paintings have been found in Central Europe since the late 15th century, for example, in the Thurzo House in Banská Bystrica (Slovakia; 1476 CE), in Schlaining Castle (Burgenland, from the 1480s) — here still monochrome green with a black frame — and then already with individual color accents in the banqueting hall of Pardubice Castle (Czech Republic, 1520 CE). The Waidhofen ceiling was placed in the context of the early 16th century when trade relations between Waidhofen and Bohemia were documented, which may have accelerated the spread of the motif. Due to the poor state of preservation, the late Gothic painting on the Waidhofen ceiling was probably repainted in the 17th century in a very simplified manner. The second version certainly falls far short of the painterly quality of the first, but it is likely to have followed the model compositionally.
A ceiling with a Palmette motif at the girder and joists, dated 1623 CE, has two quotations from the Lutheran Bible and a psalm carved into the girder, which is unique in the entire region (see Fig. 9). This date is also remarkable because, after the last uprising in 1590 CE, the remaining Protestants of Waidhofen had to go into exile in 1591 CE. The inscription is, therefore, evidence of secret (hidden) Protestantism in Lower Austria, which is all the more astonishing, as a carved inscription could not simply be removed and must, therefore, have represented a latent danger to its owner.
A Riemenbalkendecke from 1623 CE, with two quotations from the Lutheran Bible and a psalm on the girder
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10032
In the 17th century, 40 houseowners were identified by name in the archives. The owners of 14 houses were iron mongers. The professions of the other houseowners included butchers, bakers, tailors, merchants, blacksmiths, and soap makers. Interestingly, 12 Palmette-ceilings were found in 14 ironmonger houses. There were only two Palmette-ceilings in the houses of other trades/craftsmen.
4 Discussion
The parallel board and joist ceiling (Riemenbalkendecke) differs from other types of constructions in other European regions. In many cases, simple boarded ceilings were observed. This is the oldest type of construction (Grabner et al. 2016). The beams are sometimes made from round logs, or if they are hewn into a rectangular shape, they sometimes show chamfers with simple stops or simple molds. Artistically shaped joists, ceiling beams, and elaborate stops were common decorative elements in ceiling construction in England between the 14th and 20th century (Hall 2005).
In Waidhofen, most ceilings are constructed as parallel board and joist ceilings (Riemenbalkendecke). This type was found mainly in small towns and rural areas of Austria from the second half of the 14th to the end of the 17th century (Grabner et al. 2016), but not in the big city of Vienna or prominent castles since the early 17th century. For example, in the city of Krems (Lower Austria), 32 different Riemenbalkendecke constructions have been found to date (from 13 buildings dated between 1464 and 1685 CE). None of the ceilings was chip-carved. Most of them show chamfers or moldings, and sometimes intricate stops. Some were at least partially painted. This underlines the exceptional situation of the small city of Waidhofen regarding the Riemenbalkendecke construction with carvings. In Waidhofen and the surrounding villages, more than 500 ceilings have been described (Lichtenschopf 2023). The carvings were comparable to those described here, following the same development of motifs. Unfortunately, dendrochronological dating was not possible. Therefore, the study was limited to the town of Waidhofen, where most of the available information was available. In Vienna and the castles of the aristocracy, on the other hand, the Dippelbaumdecke type, which served as support for light stucco decoration, became established in the early 17th century. Thus, there is a striking difference in the aesthetic approach: dark wooden ceilings with carved decoration and white stucco ceilings with softly modeled ornaments. Waidhofen is regarded as the most important representative of the first group.
4.1 Dating of the Ceilings
Of the 92 ceilings, 69 had dates carved into the girders. These dates ranged from 1465 to 1743 CE. The Baroque period marked the end of wooden ceilings in Waidhofen. The most important period for the carved Riemenbalkendecke was the 17th century, with almost 50 ceilings.
To verify the carved year numbers, 12 ceiling constructions were dendrochronologically examined. In four cases, the difference between the carved year numbers and the waney edge dates ranged from no time difference to up to four years. The difference between the dates is based on the time for transport, hewing, carving, and installation and is consistent with other results on the time difference between felling and installation in eastern Austria (Grabner et al. 2018). Other ceilings without a waney edge (dating of the outermost tree ring; terminus post quem) also confirmed the notched-year numbers. From these results, it can be concluded that, in most cases, the given year numbers refer to the time of construction of the ceiling (not necessarily the time of construction of the building). Norway spruce (Picea abies L.) is commonly used as a wood species. Waidhofen is located near forests dominated by Norway spruce. Therefore, a very short time can be expected between the harvest of the trees (i.e., the dendrochronological date with an existing waney edge) and the establishment of the construction (Grabner et al. 2018). Round wood (logs) has always been converted into timber in a wet state, either by hewing or sawing into beams or squares (Grebe 1861; Böhm 1911; Sichler 1990; Fischer-Kohnert 1999; King & Lohrum 2000; Eißing et al. 2012).
The variability in the dendrochronological dates described for the ceiling construction in the museum at Waidhofen is consistent with previous findings. The girder was sampled from above, with the waney edge still present, and dated to 1662 (see Fig. 4). The ring width series from the joists, boards, and carved boards (Palmette) without a waney edge were dated between 1617 and 1653 CE (with the following end dates: 1617, 1622, 1632, 1643 twice, 1653). Thus, there is a difference of 44 to nine years, but with a strong tendency towards smaller differences. Klein et al. (2014) showed that carpenters tried to preserve the high-quality outermost wood as much as possible. Therefore, the loss of wood (and, therefore, the loss of tree rings) in the outermost area (under the bark) is generally limited. However, these results highlight the importance of sampling elements with an existing waney edge to obtain information on felling dates (Grabner et al. 2018). As Fig. 4 shows, the dendrochronological sampling of a Riemenbalkendecke from the underside is not meaningful because the waney edge could be far away. This is particularly true for wood species that do not form colored heartwood and therefore do not allow sapwood statistics (Shindo et al. 2023) — as in the case of Norway spruce and Silver fir.
4.2 The Carvings and Beveling
Descriptions of ceiling constructions in important buildings can be found in the literature (e.g. Sarne 1977; Hall 2005; Bouticourt 2016; Enderman 2016; Sosnowska et al. 2016). These examples (e.g., from Western Europe) mainly show ceiling constructions following the system of the Balkendecke. Artistic moldings and corbels have been used, sometimes resulting in up to three-layered constructions with beams and joists. These ceilings are often decorated with paintings.
In Waidhofen, most ceiling constructions are of the Riemenbalkendecke type. As the lower part of this construction is visible in the lower room, decorations were placed there: a mixture of beveling and chip carving.
Letters were found in almost 25% of the ceiling constructions. On ten ceilings the letters could be identified as the initials of the name of the house owner at the time of construction. The localization of the year numbers and letters was strictly limited to the center of the side faces of the girder. Only two ceilings from the 16th century were found, and the year numbers was located on the underside of the girder. The importance of the year numbers and the owner’s initials is reinforced by the fact that they are always located in the center of the girder on one of its faces, a place that is best visible on a wooden ceiling.
Chip carvings with different patterns were found on 88 ceilings. The carvings were primarily placed on girders. The six-pointed star, seven-pointed star, poly star, sun wheel, and the Taustab were found exclusively on the girder. The Wolfszahn, sun-vortex, demarcation bands, and Palmette were found on both the girder and joists.
From an art historical point of view, the carved decoration in Waidhofen takes up old forms that do not fit into the usual Gothic, Renaissance, or Baroque categories. In the 17th century, a repertoire was developed that led to the magnificent Riemenbalkendecke with the Waidhofen type of Palmette and satisfied artistic demands. At the same time, there are ceilings in Sonntagberg (a nearby village and famous place for pilgrimages) that use Baroque forms (stucco ceilings). This repertoire of motifs was not extended until the end of the Riemenbalkendecke in Waidhofen, and ceased completely around the middle of the 18th century. It is obvious that the taste of the Baroque period, even in smaller towns, preferred other forms of interior decoration, i.e. stucco ceilings. After the heyday of the Riemenbalkendecke in Waidhofen, these ceilings could only be preserved in rural areas, usually without carving. This was also described in the 19th century in Western Hungary (now Austria) (Bünker, 1895). The ceilings were not as artistically decorated as those in Waidhofen. However, the authors are unaware of any Riemenbalkendecke in this region.
As described in the introduction, chip carving has been used throughout Europe with different symbols and ornaments. The patterns used in Waidhofen followed these ornaments and not the motifs that were common and modern at the given time (e.g., scrollwork, strapwork, cartilage, leafwork and ribbonwork). The interpretation of these ornaments is difficult and not always accepted by art historians (Sarne 1977). However, limited information is available regarding this topic. Interpretations may vary by region. We have tried to provide information based on German literature. The six-pointed star has been compared to the Hagal rune (Mader 1981) and can be interpreted as a Hexagram, which is important for protection from evil spirits; however, it could also be interpreted as a six-pointed rosette, a sign of good fortune (Lurker 1991). The seven-pointed star can be related to the sacred number seven. It contains seven times a six-pointed star (Mader 1981). The sun wheel can be interpreted as a Christian symbol with the divine center at the hub of the wheel and as the monogram of Christ (Lurker 1991). In contrast to the ceiling designs in Waidhofen, the chip carvings on furniture from Italy and France show typical ornaments such as tendrils, leaves, and flower shapes, in addition to rosettes. Chip carving has been ascribed to the “Germans” (Lichtwark 1894, Grunow 1889); in fact, it can be found throughout Europe (Bünker 1889).
4.3 Development of the Motifs and Symbols Over Time
The temporal distribution of various patterns allows the formal development to be reconstructed. The earliest patterns were the Wolfszahn and the seven-pointed star at the end of the 15th century. The six-pointed star and the sun-vortex were observed in the 16th century. Around 1600, the demarcation bands, Palmette, poly star, and Taustab joined the various patterns (see Fig. 8). The Taustab is based on the pattern of a rope and has been described since the 16th to 18th century (Sarne 1977).
As described above, the heyday of the Waidhofen ceilings with the Palmette as the most elaborate motif was the 17th century, with almost 50 ceilings. The 17th century was a time of great economic problems caused by the Thirty Years War (1618–1648). During the war, products of ironsmiths such as swords, knives, lances, and chain nails were in great demand, and the Waidhofen ironsmiths produced them. Technical developments in iron production were marked by the replacement of handmade iron with water-powered hammers in 1611 (Maier 2006). Emperor Ferdinand II (1619–1637) ordered farmers in the Waidhofen region to sell their products (meat, grain, lard, etc.) exclusively in the Waidhofen market. The Waidhofen merchants sold these products to the people who mined at the Erzberg. Merchants bought cheap pig iron from Erzberg and sold it back to blacksmiths in Waidhofen and the surrounding area. This was the basis for the wealth of some Waidhofner citizens (Lichtenschopf 2022).
4.4 Decorations, Inscriptions and House Owners
There are clear differences between the ceilings of the owners’ houses. The most elaborate and costly ceilings, the Palmette, are found in houses of rich iron merchants, such as Unterer Stadtplatz Nos. 8, 10, 13, 14 and 22 (Lichtenschopf 2022). Cheaper ceilings can be found in the houses of craftsmen, such as in Hoher Markt 10, the house of tailors, Hoher Markt 27, and Hoher Markt 13, the houses of soapmakers (Lichtenschopf 2022). The status of the owner of the house can be seen in the ceiling decoration. The magnificent Waidhofen Palmette is a status symbol of the richest citizens of Waidhofen, the iron merchants (Lichtenschopf 2022).
Two unique and outstanding ceilings have been found in Waidhofen: one fully painted and one with a carved text. The painting shows floral motifs from the early 16th century, which were probably painted during the 17th century.
On a ceiling with Palmette design on the girder and the joists dating from 1623 CE, there are two biblical sayings and a psalm on the girder. There were no other ceilings with similar inscriptions in the region.
How should we interpret the fact that the citizens of Waidhofen held on to the tradition of the Riemenbalkendecke for so long, while in Vienna, the aristocratic palaces, and subsequently in most Austrian towns, brightly stuccoed rooms were already predominant? Phenomenologically, it is a matter of emphasizing historicization and insisting on one’s own traditions. This can be seen as an emphasis on the established social status of mongers. In view of the Lutheran quotation on one of the ceilings, which will not have gone unnoticed by other inhabitants of Waidhofen, an additional question arises as to whether these historicizing designs were an expression of conscious opposition to the new aesthetics of Vienna and the aristocracy, which had in the meantime become Catholic. Is it possible that the symbolic forms of the carvings were associated with the nationwide heyday of Protestantism in the 16th century? This question concerns the phenomenon of secret (hidden) Protestantism of the 17th century. Whether the richly carved Riemenbalkendecke intended to demonstrate not only their status but also their denominational confessional terms cannot be clarified in this context. This would require a detailed historical study of the biographies of houseowners; however, the source material is sparse.
5 Conclusions
In Waidhofen an unexpected number of 100 wooden ceilings have survived. The Riemenbalkendecke lasted from 1465 to 1743 CE, a period of slightly more than 250 years (for notched year numbers; for dendrochronological dates from 1515 to 1662 CE). The Late Baroque period brought an abrupt end to this ceiling type. The outstanding features of these ceilings include chip carvings, carved year numbers, and letters. Different carving patterns exhibit temporal variations. None of the carving patterns can be attributed to ornaments or symbols from these art historical periods (late Gothic, Renaissance, and early and high Baroque). Consequently, the art of chip carving creates its own formal language.
The year numbers carved into the girders was verified using dendrochronological dating. Letters on the ceilings were linked to the initials of the house owners at the time of construction.
Carved wooden Riemenbalken ceilings in Waidhofen have not been documented. Their description fills a gap in the scholarly research on ceiling constructions in Austria.
Analyses show that the richest citizens of Waidhofen, the iron merchants, owned the most elaborate and expensive ceilings, the Palmette ceilings, a kind of status symbol. Whether there is a connection with the secret (hidden) Protestantism of the time remains unclear. Therefore, the ceilings are an important testimony, the existence of which should be verified in other small towns in the region.
References
Böhm T. 1911. Handbuch der Holzkonstruktionen des Zimmermanns mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Hochbaues. Springer, Berlin.
Bouticourt E. 2016. Construction ceilings: The floors of the Rhone region in the south of France at the end of the Middle Ages. Sci. Artis 12: 24–45.
Brinckmann J. 1894. Führer durch das Hamburgische Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe. Verlag des Museums für Kunst und Gewerbe, Hamburg.
Bünker JR. 1895. Das Bauernhaus in de Heanzerei (Westungarn). Mitteil. Anthropol. Gesellschaft Wien 25: 89–154.
Dehio. 2003. Die Kunstdenkmäler Österreichs. Niederösterreich „Südlich der Donau“ Teil 2 — M bis Z. Verlag Berger Horn, Vienna.
Eckstein D, Bauch J. 1969. Beitrag zur Rationalisierung eines dendrochronologischen Verfahrens und zur Analyse seiner Aussagesicherheit. Forstwissensch. Centralbl. 88: 230–250.
Eißing T, Furrer B, King S, Knapp U, Krämer A, Lohrum B, Marstaller T, Mohn C, Pantli H, Reicke D. 2012. Vorindustrieller Holzbau in Südwestdeutschland und der deutschsprachigen Schweiz. Terminologie und Systematik. Südwestdeutsche Beiträge zur historischen Bauforschung. Eigenverlag, Esslingen.
Endermann MW. 2016. Structural timber in 15th and 16th century town houses in ‘s-Hertogenbosch (The Netherlands): Recent research on supporting structures. Sci. Artis 12: 46–65.
Fischer-Kohnert B. 1999. Das mittelalterliche Dach. Michael Imhof Verlag, Petersberg.
Fowler AM, Bridge MC. 2017. Empirically-determined statistical significance of the Baillie and Pilcher (1973) t statistic for British Isles oak. Dendrochronologia 42: 51–55. DOI: 10.1016/j.dendro.2016.12.006
Grabner M, Klein A, Nemestothy S, Salzger E. 2016. Ceilings and floorings in Austria: Types, dating and wood species. Sci. Artis 12: 66–77.
Grabner M, Buchinger G, Jeitler M. 2018. Stories about building history told by wooden elements — Case studies from Eastern Austria. Int. J. Architect. Herit. 12(2): 178–194. DOI: 10.1080/15583058.2017.1372824
Grebe K. 1861. Die Forstbenutzung. J.F. BaereckeVerlag, Eisenach.
Grunow C. 1889. Über Kerbschnitt. In: W Götze (ed.), Aus der Lehrerbildungsanstalt des deutschen Vereins für Knabenhandwerk: 124–143. J.C. Hinrichsche Buchhandlung, Leipzig.
Hall L. 2005. Period House Fixtures and Fittings 1300–1900. Countryside books, Newbury.
King S, Lohrum B. 2000. Historische Dachwerke. Institut für Architekturgeschichte Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart.
Klein A, Nemestothy S, Kadnar J, Grabner M. 2014. Dating furniture and coopered vessels without waney edge — reconstructing historical wood working in Austria with the help of dendrochronology. Dendrochronologia 32(1): 90–96. DOI: 10.1016 /j.dendro.2013.11.002
Lichtenschopf A. 2022. Historische Holzbalkendecken aus Waidhofen an der Ybbs. Sonderheft der Historischen Beiträge des Musealvereins 47. Jahrgang, Waidhofen an der Ybbs.
Lichtenschopf A, Neuber, W. 2023. Historische Riemenbalkendecken in Ybbsitz. 1558–1888. Schriften des Vereins für die Geschichte von Ybbsitz, Band 1.
Lichtwark A. 1894. Wege und Ziele des Dilettantismus. Verlagsanstalt für Kunst und Wissenschaft, München.
Lurker M. 1991. Wörterbuch der Symbolik. Alfred Kröner Verlag, Stuttgart.
Mader J. 1981. Vom Kerbschnitzen zum ornamentalen Reliefschnitt. Oberösterreichischer Landesverlag, Ried.
Maier P. 2006. Waidhofen an der Ybbs. Spuren der Geschichte. Magistrat der Stadt Waidhofen an der Ybbs, Waidhofen an der Ybbs.
Richter F. 2022. Häuserchronik der Stadt Waidhofen an der Ybbs. City of Waidhofen, Waidhofen an der Ybbs.
Sarne B. 1977. Holzdecken in Oberösterreich. Kunstjahrbuch der Stadt Linz. Verlag Anton Schroll&Co, Vienna.
Shindo L, Saulnier M, Raese H, Guibal F, Edouard JL, Bolka M, Carrer M, Corona C, Gassmann P, Grabner M, Guillet S, Nicolussi K, Nola P, Pignatelli O. 2023. European larch sapwood: A model for predicting the cambial age and for a more accurate dating. Dendrochronologia. 83. 126150. DOI: 10.1016/j.dendro.2023.126150.
Schukowitz H. 1897. Ländliche Kerbschnittkunst in Österreich. Z. Österreich. Volksk. 3: 33–42.
Sichler JG. 1990. Die Bamberger Bauverwaltung (1441–1481). Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart.
Sosnowska P, Fraiture P, Cremer S. 2016. Contribution to the history of Brussels floorings, Belgium (16th–19th centuries): Initial results of an archaeological and dendrochronological investigation. Sci. Artis 12: 78–111.
Zelinka T. 1870. Waidhofen an der Ybbs. Ein Touristenführer. Beck`sche Universitätsbuchhandlung, Wien.
Appendix
Table of all dendrochronological results, showing wood species, date, presence of waney edge, number of tree rings, standard chronology used for dating, Gleichläufikeit (Glk), t-value according to Bailie-Pilcher, t-value according to Hollstein and sampled element
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10032
