Abstract
Although wood degradation and ergonomics are critical design issues in the wood product industry worldwide, data on wood as a degradable and culturally important material for cutting meat and the ergonomics of meat marketing in urban Nigerian markets are unavailable. This study investigated the degradation of wooden cutting boards (WCB) caused by meat cutting and marketing ergonomics. Degradation was estimated using eight WCB administered to four participants marketing chevon and four participants marketing beef. Descriptive and anthropometric data were obtained from 129 participants using questionnaires and measurements. The degradation results showed that after three months, cutting meat caused a significant monthly average WCB loss of 19.6 ± 4% and 11.6 ± 4% and a cumulative weight loss of 58.17% and 34.72% for chevon and beef, respectively. A substantial number of meat marketers were found to work in awkward postures, especially in the upper extremity mismatched condition, where they potentially exert more force, resulting in contact between the cutting tools and WCB that degrades the cutting board during meat cutting. Therefore, mismatched working conditions are a feasible and heightened factor contributing to wood degradation during meat cutting and marketing. The results can help people gain a deeper understanding of wood degradation from commercial meat cutting and the ergonomics of meat marketing and provide strategies for ensuring a sustainable supply of high-quality wood and improving ergonomic conditions.
1 Introduction
Wood, a degradable material obtained from different forests (natural heritage) worldwide, has been culturally used for cutting meat for centuries (Walsh-Korb 2022). There is an amazing diversity of wood varieties, each with unique qualities, and several with specific cultural significance (Monaco et al. 2018). In recent decades, cleaning challenges and pathogenic organism-host aspects of using wood as a meat cutting material have been extensively documented (Munir et al. 2020). Even in advanced countries where plastic materials exist as an alternative, several species of wood, such as oak, pine, and spruce, have been documented as suitable and safe materials for cutting meat (Milling et al. 2005; Munir et al. 2020). In Nigeria, the use of wood as a material for commercial meat cutting is a sustained cultural heritage. From tables, chairs, and cutting boards, wood remains a major input in the design of commercial meat marketing systems in Nigeria. Although wood is still culturally used as a meat cutting material in the country, the species of wood employed has not been described in the literature. Wood degradation and ergonomics are critical design issues in the wood product industry worldwide (Martín & Lopez 2023; Sydor & Hitka 2023). However, data on wood as a degradable and culturally important material for cutting meat and the ergonomics of meat marketing in Nigerian urban markets are unavailable.
The importance of domesticated meat, such as beef and chevon (i.e., goat meat), in the human diet is globally recognized (Okpala et al. 2021; Abhijith et al. 2023). Nigeria is the leading producer of cows and goats in Africa, producing the largest amount of beef and chevon, with market capacities of over 359 and 260 thousand metric tons, respectively, each year (Agossou et al. 2017; Vanguard 2019; Kamer 2023). Thus, marketing these meats in a fresh form is a major and widespread economic activity in Nigerian mixed markets, where meat sellers are usually in clusters (Elum et al. 2017; Kubkomawa et al. 2018). The market population is relatively stable, producing products (mainly carcasses and offal) for household consumption and commercial food production (Indexbox 2023). In Port Harcourt, Nigeria residents regularly patronize beef and chevon marketers, and these meat markets are popular and thriving.
Historically, in Nigeria, the wood supply for product development has come from the depletion of natural heritage resources, and meat marketing relies heavily on local wood products to meet its requirements. The issue of wood degradation due to commercial meat cutting in Nigeria has persisted for some time and has been observed in various wooden boards used in the commercial cutting of different meats such as beef, chevon, poultry (fowl and turkey), and pork. Meat marketers continually experience high degradation and losses and need to frequently replace wooden cutting boards (WCB). However, efforts crucial to reduce losses for securing future sustainability are practically absent. Many previous studies have focused on cutting boards harboring microbes that lead to foodborne diseases and the safety of wood as a meat-contact material (Lucke & Skowvrska 2015; Munir et al. 2019; Sekoai et al. 2020; Rao et al. 2021). Others have examined the performance of vegetable chopping boards from an ergonomic perspective of proper handling and discomfort (Radhika & Lakshmi 2021). Several studies have also assessed the deterioration of cultural heritage materials (e.g., wood) by different agents (Kim & Singh 2016; Pyzik et al. 2021; Walsh-Korb 2022). However, to date, no study has addressed the degradation of WCB owing to the effect of meat cutting for commercial purposes.
In addition, while several studies have investigated the effects of work conditions and tasks on workers’ health and safety in the meat industry in many countries (Magnusson & Ortengren 1987; Vogel & Eklund 2014; Mukhopadhyay & Khan 2015; Ahmad et al. 2017; Gomez 2020), data on the ergonomics of the meat industry in Nigeria lack a comparative assessment of beef and chevon marketing in relation to worker matchability with their worktables and chairs. Kaka et al. (2016) and Odetokun et al. (2020) focused on musculoskeletal disorders in cow butchers. The matchability of worker-work tool heights has proven invaluable in reducing occupational hazards and providing optimal productivity benefits (Sydor & Hitka 2023). To fill this research gap, economic and ergonomic conservation approaches have been applied to estimate the degradation rate of WCB and analyze some ergonomic aspects of meat (beef and chevon) sellers, emphasizing their work chairs and table matchability in Port Harcourt, where the marketing of these two meat types is highly popular.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Markets and Sampling
The materials used to obtain data in this study were a weighing balance, a wood moisture meter, a height-measuring wooden graduated pole, eight pieces of 5 × 16 × 46 cm Milicia excelsa WCB, and copies of a pre-tested, well-structured questionnaire. The study was conducted from April to November 2019 in three purposively selected markets: Choba Junction (4 °54′4″ N, 6 °54′24″ E), Choba Main (4 °53′22″ N, 6 °54′3″ E) and Rumuokoro (4 °52′11″ N, 6 °59′56″ E) in Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria. These markets are open-shed, multipurpose, and open daily for different transactions. Meat marketers often worked in clusters and always moved their markets toward roads during the evening or night periods. Other related food items included live and frozen chickens, frozen turkeys, fish, snails, periwinkles, and prawns. A total of 129 meat marketers (participants), representing 50% of the total number of meat marketers, were selected to participate in this cross-sectional study. Choba Junction Market: beef (n = 10), chevon (n = 7); Choba Main Market: beef (n = 15), chevon (n = 13); Rumuokoro Market: beef (n = 31), chevon (n = 53). There is a slaughterhouse in the Rumuokoro Market, and most participants usually purchase their desired quantity of meat there after the animals are slaughtered and butchered. Recognizing their willingness to participate, we obtained the sample population’s consent and pre-tested copies of the questionnaires. The major tasks performed by meat marketers (particularly those for chevon) were cutting meat manually using knives, cutlasses, and axes, and packing meat into nylon.
2.2 Wooden Cutting Board Degradation Test
A defect-free Milicia excelsa lumber (5.08 cm × 16.51 cm × 365.76 cm) was purchased at the Illoabuchi Sawmill Lumber Market (4 °47′20″ N, 6 °59′14″ E), processed into nine test boards of 5 cm × 16 cm × 46 cm. Each cutting board costs ₦556.00, which was equivalent to USD 1.55 at the time of the study in 2019. Eight boards were used: four for the selected beef marketers and four for the selected chevon marketers. M. excelsa lumber was chosen because it was the well-known dominant wood species mentioned by the participants during the survey. The selected meat marketers were persons who purchased fresh meat worth approx. ₦80 000 (USD 222.84) from slaughtering points for marketing each day. All of the boards were air-dried to 18.55 ± 1.25% moisture content (MC) and initial weights measured before being given to the selected meat marketers. After one month of usage, the boards were retrieved, cleaned, air dried to 18.55 ± 1.25%, and reweighed as weight 1. This procedure was repeated on a monthly basis until after three months, when the boards of the chevon participants broke. At the end of the three-month field experiment, a weight loss analysis was performed to compare the degradation rates of the cutting boards.
A quadratic regression fit was used to describe the relationship between the time and percentage of degradation in the weight of the WCB. Considering the inoperability of the cutting boards at 55% degradation (the average WCB weight loss percentage (55%) at which the test cutting boards lose their usefulness for meat cutting and are thus discarded), which have no value for meat marketers and are generally disposed of, the regression equation of time as a function of degradation at 55% is expressed as follows:
t(55) = a + b(55) + c(55)² (1)
where t denotes time, a is the regression constant, and b and c are the regression coefficients.
2.3 Questionnaire Administration and Data Collection
Valid data were gathered from 129 sampled participants using copies of pre-tested, well-structured questionnaires and field measurements. The questionnaire includes questions pertaining to demographics, wood species used for cutting boards, and perceived job health-related discomfort. Additionally, on-site field anthropometric measurements were recorded to determine the matchability between meat marketers and their table or chair heights.
2.4 Determination of Anthropometric Matches
Anthropometric score–percentage matching was performed using standard statistical procedures (Ismaila et al. 2012; Baharampour et al. 2013; Karle 2022). The heights of the table and seat used in beef and chevon marketing were recorded. The marketers’ heights were also measured in an upright position with the aid of a height rule after ensuring that they were standing on a flat surface. These measurements were used to determine the anthropometric matches. Following Karle (2022), the lower and upper limit intervals were used to assess the matchability between the marketer’s height and table height and the compatibility between the table and seat height, which are expressed as follows:
where MH, TH and SH are the marketer, table and seat heights, respectively.
The anthropometric match between the marketer height and seat height was determined using equations 4 and 5 (Ismaila et al. 2012; Baharampour et al. 2013):
where PH is the popliteal height. A match is considered normal when it falls within the set of upper and lower boundaries, less than normal when it falls below the boundary, and more than normal at values higher than the boundary limit.
2.5 Statistical Analyses
Data entry was performed using MS Excel (version 2010) and analyzed using SPSS (version 23). Categorical data were descriptively analyzed and summarized as percentages. Independent t-tests (considering a 95% confidence interval) were performed to examine the differences in degradation between the types of meat marketing and anthropometric measurements of meat marketers and their worktables and seats. Time was expressed as a quadratic function of the degradation percentage following the expression of coefficients after regression analysis using the R software (version 4.1.3). This function was used to estimate the period during which the cutting board was inoperative for marketing chevon and beef. Anthropometric matches and mismatches were computed using measurement percentage matching scales.
3 Results
3.1 Wood Species, Wood Products Used for Cutting, and Degradation of Cutting Boards
The participants purchased their cutting boards from lumber markets. Table 1 lists the results for the wood species and wood products used for cutting. Participants’ knowledge regarding the wood species used for cutting boards was relatively low, with 93% being unable to name the wood species. Only a small percentage of participants continued to name M. excelsa as a known dominant wood species. Gmelina arborea, Lophira alata, Terminalia ivorensis and Khaya grandifolia were the second most frequently mentioned species. The wood products used for cutting ranged from single to dual combination items, with most (65.9%) participants using tables and very few (0.8%) using cutting boards reinforced with brown packaging papers. Of the 12 participants who reinforced their tables and cutting boards with brown packaging paper, half reported doing so for hygiene reasons. Moreover, 25, 16.7 and 8.3% of participants cited the use of brown package paper reinforcement for absorbency, cutting board protection, and table protection, respectively (Table 1).
Wood species and wood products used as cutting boards
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10034
Compared with beef marketing, WCB degradation caused by chevon marketing was significantly higher from the second to the third month of utilization (Fig. 1). The weight losses caused by meat marketing in kilograms (kg) and their equivalent monetary values are presented in Table 2. The annual volumes of wood consumed by beef (n = 112) and chevon (n = 146) marketers in the selected markets were estimated to be 0.676 m³ and 2.336 m³, respectively. The quadratic equation with the best fit (R² = 1.000) to estimate the volume of wood consumed by the two meat marketers was based on a weight loss function of 55% (Table 3). Based on the findings of Folefack et al. (2016), the projected period for wood volume consumption that will be equivalent to the volume (6.22 m³) of a standing timber tree is 2.66 and 9.21 years for chevon and beef marketers, respectively (Fig. 2).
Monthly means comparison between the wood degradation caused by chevon and beef marketing
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10034
Tree utilisation projection of chevon (n = 146) and beef marketers (n = 112) in selected markets
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10034
Monetary value of wood degradation caused by types of meat marketers
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10034
Percentage weight loss and time regression coefficient
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10034
3.2 Anthropometric Matches and Likely Impacts on WCB Degradation
Table 4 presents comparative measurements of meat marketers’ heights, worktables, and seat heights for the two types of meat. The beef marketers and their worktables were insignificantly higher than those of the chevon marketers; however, the seats used by beef marketers were significantly higher than those used by chevon marketers (Table 4). Approximately 91.1% and 87.7% of participants did not match the height of their worktables; 94.6 and 74.0% matched the height of their seats; and 69.6 and 76.7% of participants’ table heights did not match the heights of their seats for beef and chevon marketing, respectively (Table 5). These mismatches (Fig. 3) between meat marketers and worktables or chairs may exacerbate the inevitable deteriorative effect of cutting tools on WCB.
Comparative anthropometric measurements between meats’ marketers and their working tools
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10034
Percentage matches and mismatches between meats’ marketers and their working tools (count (%))
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10034
Some mismatches between meat marketers and work tables or chairs: (A) marketer, using abnormal high table during standing posture; (B) marketer, using abnormal low table during sitting posture
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10034
Convex-shaped wooden board sample during the third month of degradation test by chevon marketer
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10034
3.3 Socioeconomic Characteristics of Participants
The results of the socioeconomic characteristic analysis of the participants are shown in Table A1 in the Appendix. A total of 56 beef and 73 chevon meat marketers participated in this study, and all worked 6 days per week. Overall, 96.9% of participants were male, 81.4% were within the age category of 21–40 years, more than three-fourths (76.0%) were married, and slightly more than half (54.3%) were migrants whose states of origin do not share boundaries with the study state. Furthermore, 38.0% of participants had informal education, about half (50.4%) had marketed meat for 6–15 years, and more than half (56.6%) marketed their meat in a standing posture. In addition, more than two-thirds (70.5%) of participants worked for 6–10 h per day, and slightly more than half (52.8%) purchased fresh meat worth between
4 Discussion
4.1 Wood Species, Wood Products Used as Cutting Boards, and Degradation of Cutting Boards
Wood is a culturally universal material known for its versatility. Regardless of the species and utilization purposes, it can be degraded by a variety of agents, thereby shortening its service life (Lowell et al. 2010; Teaca et al., 2019). It has been traditionally used worldwide as a cultural heritage material to cut meat for domestic and commercial purposes. Although many wood species have a variety of uses, only developed countries have studied the wood species that are the most suitable for cutting meat. This study attests to the cultural use of M. excelsa, L. alata, T. ivorensis and K. grandifoliola as native wood and G. arborea as a non-native wood for cutting meat in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. M. excelsa was the most frequently mentioned species, suggesting its widespread use as a reference species for commercial meat cutting in the studied markets. Owing to its non-native status, G. arborea wood appears to be a relatively new entrant. Its popularity as a versatile wood and the shortage of native wood species may have contributed to it being used for cutting boards after its initial management plan for pulp and paper failed. The density of wood, in relation to its anatomical and physical-mechanical properties, is a metric used to determine its value, allowing the selection of suitable wood for every design application (Zhang 2003). This property affects the wood’s resistance potential against degradation (Dadzie & Amoah 2015). Moreover, it is possible that indigenous people’s knowledge of the strength or density of native wood, most importantly M. excelsa wood, played a major role in its choice as the most commonly used wood species. To corroborate this opinion, Brunetti et al. (2023, 2024), Gendvilas et al. (2024a,b), Mirra et al. (2024), Nocetti et al. (2024) and Sharapov et al. (2024) demonstrated the implications of high-density wood species’ correlation with a positive increase in resistance against several degradation agents, including drilling, in the management of historical wooden structures. According to previous quantitative studies, the wood species mentioned in this study, grown in Nigeria, fall into the medium- and high-density categories, with G. arborea and L. alata having the lowest and highest densities, respectively (Falemara et al. 2012; Adeyemi et al. 2016; Adewole & Icha 2021; Ekundayo et al. 2022; Olorunnisola 2023). This suggests that varying rates of WCB chipping resistance may occur when these different species of wood are used to cut meat. Elsewhere, oak, pine, and spruce wood have been reported as suitable materials for meat cutting boards based on their attendant antimicrobial effects against meat pathogens that cause spoilage (Munir et al. 2020). Oguntade and Adekunle (2010) and Adedire et al. (2021) in Nigeria and Tchinda et al. (2018) in Cameroon reported the antimicrobial activities of extractives from wood species recorded in this study against different food pathogenic organisms, thus justifying their safe use as meat cutting boards.
Four categories of wood products used for cutting meats were identified. The wood products most commonly used by participants were worktables, although the frequency was higher for chevon marketers. This implies that worktables provide considerably more services than platforms for displaying meat and provide support for holding meat while cutting. This could be a strategy to reduce the frequent replacement of WCB by many chevon marketers as beef marketers use WCB more (Table 1). However, the usage of brown paper for reinforcing the tables and WCB by a few participants was more hygienic and served absorbent rather than protection purposes against degradation. Several worktables were observed to be under serious degradation, with many indentations resulting in sunken surfaces of different depths. This has important implications for the replacement of tables, which may not be short-term like WCB but are likely to have high economic involvement.
According to this study’s results, cutting tools in contact with WCB are the main mechanical factors perpendicular to wood grains that cause WCB degradation during meat marketing. The process of degradation begins with gradual to deep wood chip removal, followed by the formation of sunken surfaces at the front and back and convex shapes (Fig. 4), and ends with breaking, which usually occurs at the centre across boards. The average weight loss at this point of breaking was 55.17%, and 44.83% was the absolute quantity of wood discarded owing to the lack of useful service life for meat cutting. The meat type differentially influenced the degradation rates of WCB, likely due to the differences in the cutting tools used, the exertion of force during cutting, and the size of the cut meat. Compared to beef cutting, chevon cutting often employs a cutlass or axe and more exertion of force due to the higher content of bones compared to beef cutting, which requires little exertion of force using a cutlass or knife. In addition, the cutting of meat of smaller size, particularly chevon, increases the frequency of cutlass or axe contact with boards, thus causing more wood chip removal. Meat cut by the selected market population was estimated to cause wood losses of 0.676 m³ for beef and 2.336 m³ for chevon, totalling 3.012 m³ per year. It may be difficult to identify the population of meat marketers in Nigeria based on meat type. However, with several hundred, if not thousands, of meat marketers in Nigeria, meat marketing should be considered a serious factor in forest loss and an unaccounted driver of forest degradation in Nigeria. Based on the obtained secondary data, 6.22 m³ of lumber can be produced from a tree (Folefack et al. 2016). The projected results of the current study indicated that chevon marketing would consume more trees than beef marketing. These results could be attributed to variations in the rate of WCB degradation by meat type and the number of meat marketers. Chevon marketers will likely replace their cutting materials more frequently than beef marketers resulting in greater tree loss.
4.2 Anthropometric Matches and Likely Impacts on WCB Degradation
Working in neutral positions is one of the cardinal principles of ergonomics, not only to lessen workers’ stress or strain but also to eliminate the need for the application of excessive force for optimal benefit (Kahya 2019; Gangopadhyay 2022). However, to date, no study has linked anthropometrics of workers and their working conditions to wood degradation. The prevalence of standing postures in meat marketing found in this study (Table A1 in the Appendix) has been attributed to allowing greater limberness to exert more force during meat cutting (Ahmad et al. 2017). Working under the upper and lower extremities appeared to allow more push with greater force in the hands while cutting meat, resulting in increased WCB degradation. This aligns with the findings of Majumder et al. (2018) who found that seated strength was greater than standing force exertion in push-pull tasks involving upper extremity muscular strength. In this study, it was discovered that a substantial proportion of the participants were in awkward work postures, particularly in the upper extremity mismatched condition. This increased risk of force could result in highly degradable contact between the cutting tools and WCB during meat cutting. Consequently, one plausible and significant contributing element of wood degradation in meat cutting and marketing is mismatched work conditions. Based on the results, it is clear that chevon cutting requires highly forceful exertion, twice as much as beef cutting. To minimize the negative impacts of the high levels of WCB degradation observed in this study, it is imperative that the anthropometrics of workers be matched to work conditions when designing wooden structures for meat marketing.
4.3 Socioeconomic Characteristics of Participants
The participants’ socioeconomic backgrounds (Table A1 in the Appendix) suggest that ergonomic education and awareness of the importance of using matched tables and seats adapted to the heights of individual meat marketers are necessary to lessen the forceful impacts that lead to high WCB degradation. Although indigenous education has historically been the threshold education that spurred the growth of beef and chevon marketing in Nigeria (Kubkomawa et al. 2018; Shaib-Rahim et al. 2020), the surge in secondary-level school attainment found in this study did not demonstrate good percentages of matched tables and chair usage. Formal education is thought to provide marketers with more information about matching tables and chairs by reducing the impact of forceful exertion on WCB through knowledge on degradation processes. Approximately 31% of individuals with formal educational attainment at the secondary and higher levels are expected to use matched tables and chairs. However, the use of matched tables and chairs is much less common, indicating that formal education has inculcated little to no information on the significance of this practice.
4.4 Limitations
This study has three limitations. First, it only surveyed three markets in one out of 36 states in Nigeria. Second, it only examined the most frequently mentioned wood species in the degradation tests using fresh beef and chevon. Other commercial meat types, especially frozen meats whose temperatures have been linked to increased force exertion requirements (Hagg et al. 2012; Vogel & Eklund 2014; Mihaylov & Boteva 2015), may have significantly higher effects on WCB degradation that were not included in this analysis. Third, our results lack statistical significance at the national level, even though the sample population complied with established statistical requirements, making the data acquired significant at the sample level. As a result, this study’s findings should not be generalized nationally to all wood species used as cutting boards for meat in Nigerian markets. Future research should consider a nationwide market survey of meat types to adequately estimate and predict the national wood volume requirements for meat marketing.
5 Conclusions
In recent decades the management of cultural heritage materials has become increasingly popular. This study reports for the first time that using mismatched tables and chairs may exacerbate the degradation of WCB via the increased hands-push force effect of cutting tools. Degradation during meat marketing is a rapid process and could cause the replacement of WCB (of size 5×16×46 cm) over the course of three months for chevon and five months for beef. Therefore, the service life of a WCB is extremely short. A considerable proportion of the participants worked in upper extremity mismatch postures, which likely explains the exacerbated deterioration effect of the cutting instruments on WCB. The results have important implications for the frequent replacement of cutting boards in wood harvesting, wood utilization, forest conservation, efficient ergonomic principles, and compliance regulations. The concept that cutting meat can contribute to the deterioration of culturally significant objects, such as cutting boards, has not yet been considered in the context of cultural heritage management; therefore, this study can serve as a springboard for such a discussion. The data obtained provide possibilities for further research on ergonomic work designs for meat cutting operations in the areas of cultural wood utilization and protection. Given the socioeconomic characteristics of the participants, ergonomic interventions (e.g., ergonomic education and policies) are required. These interventions can improve working conditions and reduce WCB degradation caused by the use of mismatched work tables and chairs during meat cutting. Furthermore, a labour inspection team may be established and tasked with enforcing strict adherence to the requirement that meat marketers use matching tables and chairs. In addition, plantations of the presently scarce high-density native wood species mentioned (i.e., M. excelsa, L. alata, T. ivorensis and K. grandifoliola) should be intensified to ensure future quality wood species security and prevent further entry of low-density wood species, such as G. arborea, which could degrade faster.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the generous support of the Executives of Butchers Association and the participants in the selected markets, without which this study would not have been possible. All authors declare no conflicts of interest. This research was not funded by any grant agency in the public, commercial, or non-profit sectors. The dataset used in this study can be provided by the corresponding author upon request.
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Appendix
Socio-economic characteristics of participants
Citation: International Journal of Wood Culture 4, 2-3 (2024) ; 10.1163/27723194-bja10034
