Abstract
Despite the potential for technology to bring us together, current research shows that new media can actually exacerbate social disconnect and contribute to feelings of isolation, inadequacy, and anxiety. However, young women in treatment for eating disorders reported that participation in a critical media literacy curriculum helped combat isolation. More specifically, participants revealed that the discussion generated throughout the critical media literacy curriculum fostered a sense of reciprocity, companionship, self-expression, and empathy. These findings suggest that critical media literacy curricula can provide a much-needed opportunity for dialogue where individuals not only hone their understanding of media and work towards social justice, but also develop a sense of community and connection that may be missing in today’s networked culture.
1 Introduction
In 1962, Marshall McLuhan asserted that media would create a global village of mutual understanding and community. Fifty-five years later, Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg proclaimed that digital media technologies (specifically, his own social network), could build “a global community that works for everyone” (Carr, 2017). Although over half a century separates these statements, both are grounded in an optimistic view of a ubiquitous media culture. Certainly, we are more connected to media than ever. In fact, “of the world’s 7 billion people, 6 billion have access to a mobile phone” (Carr, 2017). Within the u.s., “adults spend over 11 hours per day listening to, watching, reading or generally interacting with media” (Nielsen, 2018). Similarly, the Pew Research Center found that 95% of American teenagers have access to smart phones and 45% say they are online “almost constantly” (Anderson & Jiang, 2018). While the convergence of media technologies through smart phones and other internet-connected devices has led to increasing time spent with media (Nielsen, 2018), it does not necessarily mean that we have achieved McLuhan’s global village.
This retreat into private silos has resulted in the inability of individuals to connect their personal suffering with larger public issues. Thus detached from any concept of the common good or viable vestige of the public realm, they are left to face alone a world of increasing precarity and uncertainty in which it becomes difficult to imagine anything other than how to survive. Under such circumstances there is little room for thinking critically and acting collectively in ways that are imaginative and courageous (p. 36).
Given this, we must keep in mind that “the new technologies of communication are powerful tools that can liberate or dominate, manipulate or enlighten and it is imperative that educators teach their students how to critically analyze and use these media” (Kellner and Share, 2007, p. 9).
…encompasses both textual and contextual concerns within a critical framework, argues that to be a citizen rather than a passive consumer in media-saturated societies, one must develop an understanding of the commercial structure of the media industries and the political and ideological implications of this structure. From this perspective, in addition to being able to skillfully deconstruct media texts, the person who is truly media literate is also knowledgeable of the political economy of the media, the consequences of media consumption, and the activist and alternative media movements that seek to challenge mainstream media norms and create a more democratic system.
(Yousman, 2016, pp. 385–386).
Integral to an understanding of critical media literacy is critical pedagogy. Growing out of the work of Paulo Freire, critical pedagogy focuses on democratizing the educational experience by creating a participatory environment where teachers and students come together as co-learners. In other words, “critical pedagogy is devoted to engaging with students in the process of thinking” (Yousman, 2016, p. 383). As part of this process, critical pedagogy stresses reflexivity, which requires students to reflect on their personal circumstances as well as the larger world. Through reflexivity, critical pedagogy fosters “…the development of a critical consciousness, as students are able to gain an understanding of and control over the personal, social, economic, and political forces affecting them” (Gonzales et al., 2004, p. 193). By integrating critical pedagogy into critical media literacy, educators eschew the banking model of education in favor of “co-investigation,” where student subjectivity is not just valued, but the starting point for inquiry. When critical media literacy educators relinquish power and encourage student reflection, they “help students become subjects in the process of deconstructing injustices, expressing their own voices, and struggling to create a better society” (Kellner & Share, 2005, p. 382).
Unfortunately, “critical media literacy has never been considered essential in schools or communities” (boyd, 2014, p. 181). However, critical media literacy initiatives have been successful in helping students and practitioners confront issues of inequality and advocate for social justice (Funk et al., 2016). While fostering informed and engaged citizens is always the primary goal, it is important to consider if there are any additional benefits that critical media literacy may offer—particularly in terms of addressing feelings of isolation that are becoming commonplace in our current digital environment. My own research findings suggest that for young women in treatment for eating disorders, discussion arising from a critical media literacy curriculum fostered a sense of reciprocity, companionship, self-expression, and empathy.
2 Critical Media Literacy in Eating Disorder Treatment
Media literacy curricula have been used to improve body image, body acceptance, and eating attitudes as well as to decrease internalization of the thin-ideal and weight concern (Irving & Berel, 2001; Levine et al., 1996; Neumark et al., 2000; O’Dea & Abraham, 2000; Piran et al., 2000; Wade et al., 2002). Despite this, there is a lack of research on media literacy in eating disorder treatment. Given the transformative power of critical media literacy, I designed the era (Education-Recognition-Activism) curriculum in an effort to: Increase participants’ understanding of the tenets of media literacy, increase participants’ sense of empowerment, and decrease participants’ the drive for thinness. From late fall 2007 through summer 2008, I implemented the era curriculum four times at a well-regarded partial hospitalization and intensive outpatient program for eating disorders in New England. The era curriculum consisted of four-weekly, 50-minute sessions where participants: 1. explored the foundations of critical media literacy by applying them to popular media culture, 2. reflected on their emotional responses to media, 3. considered how dominant media messages and social forces conflicted with personal goals for a healthy life, and 4. engaged in activism by writing letters to organizations that contributed to or challenged toxic media culture.
In order to determine the effectiveness of the era curriculum, participants were asked to complete pre- and post-test surveys. In addition to the 33 closed-ended questions that appeared on the pretest, the post-test survey also included five open-ended questions regarding the participants’ perceived value and enjoyment of the era curriculum. Although 73 individuals participated in the era curriculum, only 50 consented to completing pre- and post-test surveys. Due to patient attrition, only 33 individuals, all identifying as white females between that ages of 12 and 43, 1 provided both pre- and post-test surveys for analysis. Quantitative analysis revealed a statistically significant increase in understanding the tenets of media literacy upon the completion of the era curriculum, but only slight increases for empowerment and decreases in drive for thinness (Bindig, 2013). However, participants demonstrated an understanding the tenets of critical media literacy and a sense of empowerment in their responses to the open-ended survey questions. Perhaps most interesting was that responses to the opened-ended survey questions revealed that a critical media literacy intervention for women in treatment for eating disorders created a space for conversation and companionship that participants found valuable and/or enjoyable. To be more specific, a total of 24 individuals, over two-thirds of the participants, reported some aspect of “discussion” in their responses to one or both of the open-ended questions. 2 In fact, 13 participants indicated that discussion was among the most valuable aspects of the curriculum, resulting in the second highest number of responses. Though critical viewing skills was reported to be the most valuable aspect of the curriculum, it did so narrowly, with only a total number of 15 responses. Furthermore, 23 participants noted that discussion was the most enjoyable aspect of the curriculum—far and away securing the top response (by comparison, the second most enjoyed aspect was critical viewing skills, which only yielded 10 responses). A close analysis of the open-ended responses indicate that participants valued and/or enjoyed critical media literacy discussion because it allowed for reciprocity, companionship, self-expression, and empathy. The analysis that follows includes a discussion of representative survey responses; however, the names attributed to the quotes have been changed to protect the privacy of the participants.
3 Perceived Value and Enjoyment of Discussion
Among 13 individuals that participated in the era curriculum, discussion was valued and enjoyed because it was considered a site of openness and mutual exchange. For example, Heather (age 14) noted, “I liked how everyone could share their opinion…” while Ellie (age 14) explained, “I also like that we have discussions where everyone gets to talk and give how they are feeling.” While both Heather and Ellie’s comments could be interpreted as simply enjoying that a large number of people involved in the critical media literacy conversation, their use of “everyone” connotes a sense of inclusivity fostered by the discussion. Marissa’s (age 17) statement, “I enjoy the open dialogue. It’s wonderful to share my experiences and listen to others,” not only acknowledges active and inclusive participation but highlights a give and take of sharing and listening. This sense of reciprocity that emerged from the era curriculum discussion reflects the critical media literacy approach of co-investigation. By encouraging participants to talk to each other about critical media literacy issues that were relevant to their lives, the era participants and facilitator were co-constructing discussions together both in terms of subject matter and conversational flow, which established a sense of reciprocity that was valued and enjoyed by the participants.
Most likely due to the reciprocity established during the critical media literacy sessions, 12 participants reported that they valued and/or enjoyed the discussion because it diminished their feelings of loneliness. For example, Delia (age 21) responded, “It was good to talk about these issues … it was helpful to hear the other group members echo my thoughts.” For Delia, hearing her perspective repeated by other group members offered a sense of affirmation. Rather than assuming that her thoughts were aberrant, the experience of hearing others voice similar ideas provided a sense of solidarity. While Delia’s response implicitly spoke to loneliness, others were explicit in their references to how discussion countered their sense of isolation: “Hearing how other girls are affected the same way by the media and that I am not alone in that struggle” (Beth, age 21), “People really can relate to each other and it makes you realize you aren’t alone” (Jerrica, age 14), and “Hearing other girls struggle is the same as mine. I am not alone” (Baily, age 20). Going one step further, Renee (age 21) noted that what she enjoyed most about discussion was “the companionship.” Taken together, these comments suggest that through critical media literacy discussion participants are able to discover commonalities, overcome feelings of isolation and loneliness, and help forge connections and a sense of camaraderie.
Beyond the issues of reciprocity and companionship, 10 participants emphasized that the era discussion was valuable and enjoyable because it allowed them to express their own thoughts. For example, Lisa (age 22) noted, “I enjoyed the fact that we were able to give our opinions…” [emphasis original] while Sidney (age 18) explained, “I enjoyed the enthusiastic [facilitator] who always let us give our views…” Both Lisa and Sidney’s responses imply that their ideas or feelings are not typically welcomed or solicited and the discussion that arose from the critical media literacy curriculum provided a unique opportunity to offer their own perspectives. As Hine (1999) notes, “Teenagers spend much of their lives dealing with people who do not know them as individuals and under the control of institutions that strive to deal with people uniformly” (p. 17). The hierarchal nature of relationships with teachers, parents, and in the case of the era participants, clinicians, can undermine not just the reciprocal exchange of ideas but also authentic self-expression. Furthermore, Nora’s (age 18) enjoyment of “sharing my experiences and getting positive feedback” implies that even when she is given the chance to offer her insights it is met with a negative response. Therefore, the “positive feedback” that Nora received through the critical media literacy discussion is significant because it may offer validation that is absent elsewhere in participants’ lives. Undoubtedly, the lack of opportunity for authentic self-expression can lead to feeling alienated and inconsequential. Once again, the influence of critical pedagogy in terms of democratization and reflexivity are vital to the participants’ ability to talk freely and confidently about their lived experiences with media culture. Thus, these findings from the era curriculum suggest critical media literacy has the potential to provide a much-needed space where meaningful self-expression is encouraged and reinforced.
In addition to giving voice to their own thoughts and feelings, 7 participants revealed that they valued and enjoyed discussion because it provided them with the opportunity to hear the experiences of others. For instance, Janet (age 20) reported that she valued “hearing others’ opinions” while Donna (age 16) enjoyed “hearing [others] talk about their families.” Although neither Janet nor Donna are specific about what was meaningful to them about the thoughts or experiences of others, both young women are clear that they are interested in something outside herself. Going beyond mere interest in others, Heather (age 14) wrote, “I enjoyed … hearing the struggles of others and offering advice.” While it is unclear if Heather enjoyed listening to others because they mirrored and validated her own experiences or they made her feel less alone, she is unambiguous about trying to help. Citing interest in others is particularly noteworthy with an eating disorders population since they have long-been said to be self-involved and consumed by their own afflictions (Brunton et al., 2005). The empathy and responsiveness embodied by these participants suggest that critical media literacy discussions can help challenge the “narcissism epidemic” that is said to be pervasive among today’s youth (Twenge & Campbell, 2013). This finding is also meaningful to the larger project of critical media literacy, as increased empathy and genuine interest in others increases the ability to form the alliances necessary to affect social change.
Although critics may argue that the survey responses are not specific to critical media literacy, at least 9 participants explicitly referenced content from the curriculum as part of the reason they valued and enjoyed discussion. Admittedly, some responses about enjoying “open discussion about the media” (Kayla, age 36) and “a relaxed opportunity to discuss the media” (Heather, age 14) are extremely broad. It is unclear if the participants simply enjoy popular culture and discussions surrounding it or if they enjoyed a specific critical media literacy lesson or skill. However, Janet (age 20) was quite precise when she noted that she enjoyed “viewing media clips and discussion after.” While Janet pinpointed an exact activity 3 as the source of her enjoyment, which was useful feedback for fine-tuning curricula for future implementations, no other participant was so explicit. That said, Marissa (age 17) offers a reasonable middle ground: “I enjoyed discussing the impact of media with others, especially others that have a problem similar to mine that is directly related to media.” Marissa clearly connects her enjoyment of discussions to the shared experiences among the participants (i.e. their experiences with eating disorders) as well as curricular content. Though Marissa’s response certainly lends credence to the incorporation of critical media literacy in eating disorder treatment, perhaps Kathy (age 22) best describes the value of critical media literacy based discussion for any population when she wrote, “[I most valued] the opportunity to talk to others who understand what they feel about media. Because those conversations aren’t typical in the ‘real world’—usually people just accept the media and don’t talk about it.” Kathy’s reference to a general “acceptance” of media suggests that the current media environment and its social impact typically go unquestioned both inside and outside of eating disorder treatment. For Kathy, the era discussions provided a unique venue to contemplate and converse about media and inequality with others that is absent, though needed, in everyday life.
What makes the participants’ value and enjoyment of the discussion generated by the era curriculum particularly meaningful is the fact that individuals with eating disorders are notorious for being difficult to work with (Aspen et al., 2014; Gordon, 2000, Jarman et al., 1997; Kaplan & Garfinkel, 1999). Often those afflicted with eating disorders are ambivalent or actively resistant to treatment strategies (Costin, 1996; Jarman et al., 1997; Pettersen et al., 2011). They are known to have difficulty with social interactions and are commonly characterized as reticent, introversive, mistrustful, and isolated (Hartmann et al., 2010; Pryor & Wiederman, 1996). These individuals with clinically low self-esteem can become hostile if they perceive treatment as “trying to take their eating disorders away” (Hatmann et al., 2010; Pettersen et al., 2011) or uncommunicative if they feel shame or judgement (Kaplan & Garfinkel, 1999; Pettersen et al., 2011, Stewart, 2004). Not surprisingly, feelings of depression and isolation related to eating disorders also make it difficult for patients to connect to professionals and each other (Stewart, 2004). Despite these tendencies, critical media literacy discussion has shown potential for fostering authentic connection and self-expression with this “challenging” population.
While the discussion generated by the era curriculum was valued and enjoyed by two-thirds of the participants, three individuals felt as though the discussions were not executed properly. However, there was no consensus among these participants about the best way to approach discussion. For instance, Sally (age 13) suggested that discussions “needed more structure so everyone was … able to participate and have a chance to speak” while Beth (age 20) thought “hearing people talk who didn’t want to was not helpful because they didn’t have much to say on topic.” Although these comments are dichotomous, they do provide a reminder that in any curriculum, it is impossible to fully please everyone. However, facilitators should be mindful of different participation styles and moderate discussion accordingly based on participant feedback. Even with these criticisms, it is apparent that the discussion generated by critical media literacy was an overwhelmingly positive experience for the majority of the participants in the era curriculum.
4 Conclusion
Although a small sample, the responses to the era curriculum offer some important insights about the expansion of critical media literacy. First and foremost, this study demonstrates that critical media literacy can be useful beyond traditional classroom settings—in this case a therapeutic environment. In particular, participant responses suggest that critical media literacy may provide unanticipated positive outcomes in terms of the discussion it generates. Interestingly, past research shows that successful approaches to eating disorder treatment focus on mutual understanding, support, validation, and empathy (Hartmann et al., 2010; Maine, 2009; Sibeoni et al., 2017), all feelings that the era participants associated with critical media literacy discussions. Critical media literacy discussion also provided a space for participants to explore topics other than their eating disorder, a tactic which has resulted in active engagement in treatment in the past (Pettersen et al., 2011). Most significantly, the era participant responses about critical media literacy discussion reflect the findings of Stewart (2004), which suggest “The implementation of less traditional types of support for this disorder seem to benefit patients, especially in offsetting the isolation to which they are so frequently prone” (p. 194). In other words, an unanticipated benefit of the era curriculum discussion was that it helped combat feelings of isolation—a long documented issue for individuals struggling with eating disorders.
If the era curriculum can be perceived as valuable and enjoyable by individuals in treatment for eating disorders who suffer from isolation and clinically low self-esteem, perhaps critical media literacy is a useful tool in addressing the feelings of loneliness, inadequacy, and anxiety young people face in today’s “networked” culture. Like the era participants who were able to “share and listen” through “open dialogue,” critical media literacy curricula can provide a much-needed opportunity for discussion where individuals not only hone their understanding of media and work towards social justice, but also develop a sense of community and connection. As Yousman (2016) suggests, by engaging in critical media literacy, we may find “…alternative ways of relating to one another as full human beings…” (p. 410). Thus, by fostering the opportunity for mutual understanding and connection through discussion, critical media literacy may lead us one step closer to realizing McLuhan’s dream of a global village.
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The average age of era participants was 20 years old.
The questions were “What was the most valuable aspect of the curriculum?” and “What was the most enjoyable aspect of the curriculum?”
Janet is referring to and activity where the group deconstructed the underlying values of the popular television program The Hills and compared it to the values of other media texts they were familiar with.