Western perspectives of entomophagy

Exploring diverse consumer perceptions of entomophagy is crucial in understanding the acceptance and consumption of insects if insect protein is to be valued as a legitimate alternative to traditional meat-based proteins. However, literature concerning consumer perspectives on entomophagy has extensively focused on Western perceptions and ways to increase acceptability of insects as food (Caparros Megido et al., 2014; Defoliart, 1992; Dobermann et al., 2017; Megido et al., 2016). Of 50 peer reviewed articles of consumer acceptance of insects as food and feed, 70% of the studies were undertaken in Western countries (Ngo and Moritaka, 2021). Furthermore, a meta-analysis of 37 studies investigating consumers’ willingness to consume insects, 31 of these investigated European countries (Wassmann et al., 2021). Conclusions from these studies frequently highlight that Western perceptions of entomophagy are predominately negative, with insects as a food source typically being perceived as undesirable, disgusting, and/or associated with primitive behaviour. Nevertheless, other studies highlight positive perceptions of entomophagy, driven by curiosity and interest in novel foods (Caparros Megido et al., 2014; Russell and Knott, 2021; Van Huis, 2013). Since Western consumers often struggle to accept eating entire insects, they are generally ground into powders, or their proteins and fats extracted and used in food products (Megido et al., 2016; Ngo and Moritaka, 2021; Sogari et al., 2017; Tan et al., 2015; Tucker, 2014). These techniques arguably help to attenuate the disgust factor by rendering the insects unrecognisable in food products (Caparros Megido et al., 2014; Megido et al., 2016; Van Huis et al., 2013). Other suggestions to increase willingness of Western consumers to try insects, include education on the potential sustainability advantages, nutritional benefits, and flavours (Mishyna et al., 2020; Wassmann et al., 2021). Tasting sessions have also been proposed to decrease food neophobia and encourage entomophagy (Caparros Megido et al., 2014; Megido et al., 2016).

Traditional perspectives of entomophagy

In contrast to Western perspectives, many countries consider edible insect species to be traditional delicacies (Kelemu et al., 2015; Ramos-Elorduy et al., 1997). For example, China has a 3000-year history of consuming various species of insects (Zhi-Yi, 1997). Some Central African countries rely on insects for up to 50% of consumed protein and their market value at times can be higher than other sources of animal protein (Raubenheimer and Rothman, 2013). Thailand has a rich culture of cooking insects (Yhoung-Aree, 2010) and Japan has a handful of insect species that are eaten today as luxury/delicacy food items (Nonaka, 2010). A comparison of consumer perceptions of entomophagy from two different countries, Thailand (where insects are usually eaten) and the Netherlands (where insects are not usually eaten), highlighted that cultural exposure results in different levels of experience and knowledge around insect consumption (Tan et al., 2015).

Indigenous Māori and entomophagy in Aotearoa New Zealand

Outside of Africa, Asia and South America, eating insects is known in indigenous people such as Aboriginal Australians (Yen, 2005), Native Americans in the USA (Schrader et al., 2016), and Māori in Aotearoa New Zealand (Miller, 1952). (Anonymous, 1840; Williams, 2001; Yen, 2009). To Māori, insects are part of purākau, (cultural narratives) and are considered significant for several reasons and, depending on the insect species, viewed as ancestors, visual representations of gods or spirits, destructive pests, seasonal indicators, or as food (Grant, 2014; Miller, 1952). Sixteen insect species, ngā pēpeke papai (the beneficial insects) at various life cycle stages have reportedly been eaten by Māori (Grant, 2014; Miller, 1952). The main insect that was and is still currently eaten is the larvae of huhu beetle Prionoplus reticularis (White, 1847) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), although traditionally all life cycle stages were collected and consumed (Grant, 2014; Meyer-Rochow and Changkija, 1997; Miller, 1952).

Māori were known to eat insects whole as well as ground up and/or combined with other foods both raw and/or cooked. Ophiocordyceps robertsii (Hook, 1837) (Hypocreales: Ophiocordycipitaceae) known by Māori as āwhato or āwheto (vegetable caterpillar) is an entomopathogenic fungus of the larvae of Dumbletonius characterifer (Walker, 1865) (Lepidoptera: Hepialidae) and were eaten uncooked. Large numbers of nymphs of the kikihia kai/little grass cicada Kikihia muta (Fabricius, 1775) (Hemiptera: Cicadidae) were crushed cooked and eaten, and Kēkerewai/Mānuka beetle Pyronota festiva (Fabricius, 1775) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) were mixed with pollen of Raupō/Bulrush (Typha orientalis C. Presl) to make bread. Other insects such as New Zealand grass grub/Tataeruru Costelytra giveni (Coca-Abia and Romero-Samper, 2016) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), leafroller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), nymphs of the dobsonfly (Megaloptera: Corydalidae) and stonefly (Plecoptera), and caterpillars of pūriri moth (Mokoroa) Aenetus virescens (Doubleday, 1843) (Lepidoptera: Hepialidae) were also known to be eaten (Grant, 2014; Miller, 1952). However, the arrival of Europeans from 1769, and subsequent colonisation of Aotearoa New Zealand, led to reduced mātauranga Māori (Māori knowledge), including the oral storytelling around the traditional relationship of Māori with insects. However, some information on the insects considered significant to Māori were documented by mostly European colonists from the nineteenth to twenty first centuries (Grant, 2014).

In relation to the current consumption of insects in Aotearoa New Zealand, it is mainly the huhu beetle larvae that are eaten, and this is often viewed amongst Pākehā (European New Zealanders) as more of a novel experience rather than part of a staple diet (Gibbs, 2007; Watt, 1982). A few studies have explored attitudes to entomophagy in Aotearoa New Zealand (Clarkson et al., 2018; Payne et al., 2023; Ritger et al., 2016; Tucker, 2013). These studies however, are mainly qualitative, focus groups (Ritger et al., 2016; Tucker, 2013) and workshops (Clarkson et al., 2018). The most recent study by Payne et al., (2023) Payne et al., (2023) captured Aotearoa New Zealand public attitudes regarding feasibility and likelihood of them consuming insects. However, all of these studies have lacked indigenous representation. Payne et al. (2023) noted that only 7.6% of participants identified as Māori, compared to the national average of 15.3% (StatsNZ, 2017). Payne et al. (2023) suggested that there was an opportunity to explore the history of insect consumption among Māori and the future likelihood of reintroducing insects as a food source. This contribution explores indigenous Māori perspectives on entomophagy, to gain understanding of the history of entomophagy in Māori culture, how entomophagy is currently perceived, and the future potential of edible insect-derived products.

Participants and procedure

Following ethical approval from the Lincoln University Ethics Committee (HEC2021-26) Māori participants over the age of 18 were invited to take part in an online survey about Aotearoa New Zealand plants and insects. The data collection took place over a six-week period from August to September 2021 hosted by the secure webpage, Qualtrics™. Participants had the option of having the survey presented in either te reo Māori (the Māori language) or English. Confidentiality was assured, and participation was voluntary. Māori terminology and the equivalent English meaning is used throughout the document and is collated into Table 1.

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Māori terminology and the English meaning in relation to survey examining attitudes to insect consumption by Māori in Aotearoa New Zealand

Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 10, 2 (2024) ; 10.1163/23524588-20230105

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Survey distribution

As this survey was requesting Mātauranga Māori it was important to use tīkanga (Māori cultural practices/customs), and whakawhanaungatanga (the process of establishing culturally meaningful connections with others), as Māori place high value on these and there absence can lead to disengagement (Levack et al., 2016). Distribution of the survey started through mailing lists; initially close family and friends of the first author (CO), were sent the survey followed by members of the author’s hapū (sub-tribe) and iwi (tribe). Through this method the survey was sent to 100 close contacts. As mātauranga Māori is about sharing knowledge and should have the best interest of Māori in mind, the survey not only asked individuals to participate but also informed them of the potential benefits from the research and offered participants the option of receiving a report describing the results. The survey was first distributed via these mailing lists and then via a snow-balling approach (Goodman, 1961) to reach a wider audience.

The next step in the distribution strategy was to reach out to interested groups, Māori academics, researchers, rōngoa practitioners and student Māori groups within Aotearoa New Zealand (Universities, rongoā practitioners, Facebook groups). The survey was also distributed via social networking websites (Instagram, Facebook, and Twitter). For these participants whakawhanaungatanga was crucial and the approach changed slightly as the first author started with a pepeha (a way of sharing your connections to places and people, Table 1) to introduce herself and her research.

Survey criteria

The survey was presented in four sections, with a total of 12 questions (Appendix A). The first section contained four multiple-choice demographic questions designed to ascertain the diversity of the sample population regarding gender, age, and if they were Māori. If participants answered ‘yes’ to being Māori, they were asked in an open text format what iwi (singular or plural) they affiliated with. This provided a geographical indication to where participants iwi were located within Aotearoa New Zealand, even if they may be living outside the iwi geographical boundaries. If participants answered ‘no’ to being Māori, they were directed to the end of the survey and thanked for their participation. Although education is a common demographic question asked, it was intentionally left out of this survey as one’s level of formal education does not directly correlate to one’s knowledge of mātauranga Māori.

The second section of the survey, ‘plants and their significance to you’, focused on plants, vegetables and rongoā rākau (medicinal plants) and their cultural significance. However, the results from this section are not discussed in this paper, but used to select plants that may be suitable hosts for edible insects (unpublished data).

The third section of the survey, ‘insects, and their significance to you’, asked participants if they could name any insects that played a significant role in Māori culture as food, medicine, or other. Participants were able to list multiple insects under each category in an open text box format. Participants were also asked if they or their whānau had eaten insects and, if so, which insects.

In the final and fourth section of the survey, ‘insects as food’, participants were asked to describe their diet from multiple-choice options (meat eater, flexitarian/mainly vegetarian, pescatarian, vegetarian, vegan, or other). They were also asked if the sustainability of food was important to them and were provided with the following definition to what sustainable food is: “Toitū means to be sustainable. Toitū maintains or increases food output and at the same time ensures looking after the environment, animals, and natural resources”. This was measured using a 5-point Likert scale (where 1 represented an answer of ‘not very important’ and 5 represented an answer of ‘very important’). Participants were also asked if they were to eat cooked insects, how they would prefer to eat them; and were provided with multiple-choice options to record their answers (‘processed and crushed into a powder e.g. flour’, ‘whole’, ‘either’, or ‘I wouldn’t eat insects’).

To prompt participants to consider insects as food in a positive manner, the following paragraph on the benefits of eating insects was provided:

Insects as food can be farmed more sustainably and ethically than livestock. They require less feed, water, and space than meat products. They provide an excellent source of protein, energy, and minerals needed for everyday function. With this information, please rate how likely you are to do the following.

Participants were then provided with the following three scenarios and asked: ‘would you be more likely to eat insects or insect products if: (1) the insects were native to Aotearoa New Zealand and farmed sustainably? (2) the insects were fed rongoā rākau and farmed sustainably? and (3) you knew that the type of insect was once eaten by Māori?’ Participants’ responses to these questions were measured using a 5-point Likert scale (where 1 = ‘a lot less likely’ and 5 = ‘a lot more likely’). Participants who selected ‘I wouldn’t eat insects’ (Question 11, Appendix A), above were asked again if after taking into consideration the issues raised above would they now consider eating insects. These participants were presented with the same multiple-choice options as above with the addition of ‘I may now consider eating insects’ (Question 13, Appendix A). Finally, all participants were able to enter their email address if they wanted to receive a report of the results.

Statistical analysis

Online survey results were converted from Qualtrics and exported to Microsoft Excel (version 2112). Results from both the English and te reo Māori surveys were collated and summarised using Microsoft Excel. Results were analysed using Minitab 19.

In multiple-choice questions, survey participants were asked to choose one of the provided list of response options for each question, with the number of responses to each option then converted into the percentage value in relation to total responses to the question. Within each multiple-choice question, pair-wise comparisons of these percentage values between response options were undertaken, using one-sample proportion exact test. Similarly, in a series of questions targeting the same group of participants, their percentage responses to the same response options were compared between the questions in a pair-wise comparison, also with one-sample proportion exact test.

Survey participants were next classified into groups, based on demographic categories – e.g. gender, age, diet and whether or not they said they would consume insects. Then, a pair-wise comparison of these groups’ responses was undertaken using two-sample proportion exact test.

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Socio-demographic characteristics of participants in survey on Māori attitudes to consuming edible insects

Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 10, 2 (2024) ; 10.1163/23524588-20230105

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Population description

A total of 172 Māori responded to the survey with significantly more female than male and non-binary/third gender participants (71.7% female, 25.6% male, and 2.8% non-binary/third gender, respectively, ($P<0.001$)) (Table 2). A further eight participants were not Māori and therefore excluded from the survey. Overall, participants were aged between 18 and 65+, with 71.7% of participants aged 25-54, and significantly fewer participants aged between 18-24 (13.3%), 55-64 (11.1%)and 65+ (3.94%), respectively, ($P<0.01$). Participants associated with one to five iwi groups (49.1% 1 iwi, 24.6% 2 iwi, 20.5% 3 iwi, and 5.8% 4-5 iwi). Iwi representation was from the far north of Te Ika-a-Māui (North Island) down to the southern region of Te Waipounamu (South Island). Only 5% (n = 10) completed the survey in te reo Māori.

In terms of diet, 67.3% (n = 111) of the participants indicated that they were meat eaters. This was significantly more than participants who were flexitarian (mainly consuming a vegetarian diet), 18.2% (n = 30), vegetarian, 5.5% (n = 9), and pescatarian, 3.0% (n = 5) ($P<0.001$). None of the participants were vegan while 6.1% (n = 10) indicated their diet was ‘other’ (Table 2).

Insects and their significance to Māori culture as food

Forty-two percent (n = 90) of participants indicated that insects play a significant role to Māori as food, with 94% (n = 85) of participants naming the huhu grub (Table 3). Only a small number of participants named other species (<3%, n = 5) such as cicada, wētā (Orthoptera: Ensifera), an endemic species which can include some large specimens, kānuka grub, cricket, mānuka beetle, and fly maggot, the identity of which was not determined.

Insects and their significance to Māori culture as ‘rongoā’ and ‘other’

From our survey 9.8% (n = 21) of participants said they could name insects that are significant to Māori as rongoā (Table 3). The kawakawa looper /whangawhanga Cleora scriptaria (Walker, 1860) (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) was named as enhancing the healing properties of kawakawa. According to mātauranga, the kawakawa leaves that have been eaten by the kawakawa looper have a higher rongoā (medicinal value). Whare tukutuku (spider webs) are described as being used to stop bleedings from wounds or cuts and ngata (snail) slime is used for wheezing lungs. Although snails and spiders are not insects in a taxonomic sense, they are commonly referred to as ‘bugs’ by the participants and therefore included for the purpose of this study.

Participants also noted other ways in which insects are significant to Māori including being part of pūrakau (cultural narratives) (Table 3) and kaitiaki (guardians) (Table B1, Appendix B). Wētā, stick insects/Rō (Phasmids), and pūriri moth, were identified as kaitiaki. By comparison, ants, crickets, and cicadas were a part of pūrakau. One participant also mentioned how fly maggots were used to clean tuna (eels) and other meats as a method of food preservation.

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Number of participants who named insects or other taxa (e.g. spiders, slugs) as being significant to Māori under different categories

Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 10, 2 (2024) ; 10.1163/23524588-20230105

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Arthropod taxa (insects or spiders) identified as being consumed by Māori either in Aotearoa New Zealand or overseas

Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 10, 2 (2024) ; 10.1163/23524588-20230105

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Participants’ history of insect consumption

Our results show that 47% (n = 79) of participants had either eaten or know of others in their whānau who had eaten insects (Table 4). Most of the insect species that had been consumed were in Aotearoa New Zealand, with 89% (n = 70) of participants naming huhu grub as the species that has been tried (Table 4). Other insect species named include kapakapa/locust (Orthoptera) and fly maggots (Table B2, Appendix B). The rest of the arthropod taxa identified (<10%, n = 8), were from participants who had consumed insects overseas, and included crickets, ants, grasshoppers, and spiders (Table B2, Appendix B).

Perceptions of sustainability and willingness to consume insects

Overall, participants in this study considered obtaining toitū (sustainable) food to be very important (82.4%, n = 136), significantly higher than those who had a neutral stance (15.2%, n = 25) or thought that it was not very important (2.4%, n = 4) ($P<0.001$, see Table 5).

Perceptions of insect consumption

Participants were also asked if they would eat insects or insect products either processed (crushed into a powder e.g. flour), whole, either (processed or whole), or if they would not eat insects. Significant differences were found among all groups ($P<0.001$). Most participants indicated they would eat insects either processed or whole (47.3%, n = 78), followed by processed (35.8%, n = 59) and whole (4.2%, n = 7). Only 12.7% (n = 21) of participants indicated they would not eat insects meaning 87.3% (n = 144) of participants would be willing to eat insects in some form.

Willingness to consume under different scenarios

Participants were then asked how likely they would be to consume insects and insect products under three different scenarios. Participants indicated that they would be significantly more likely to consume insects and insect products if they were native to Aotearoa New Zealand and farmed sustainably (69.7%, n = 115); if they were fed rongoā rakau and farmed sustainably (72.1%, n = 119); or if they knew that the type of insect was once eaten by Māori (71.5%, n = 118) (Table 5). Statistically, there were no differences between these three scenarios suggesting that one scenario is not more likely than the other two to increase or decrease the likelihood of Māori eating insects. From the three scenarios around 18.2-19.4% (n = 30-32) of participants had a neutral stance and 8.5-12.1% (n = 14-20) said they would be a lot less likely to consume insects under these circumstances.

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Importance of obtaining toitū (sustainable) food, eating insects and likelihood of Māori eating insects or insect products under three scenarios

Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 10, 2 (2024) ; 10.1163/23524588-20230105

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Gender, age, and diet affects on whether or not Māori participants would eat insects

Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 10, 2 (2024) ; 10.1163/23524588-20230105

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Correlations between gender, age, and diets on willingness of Māori consuming insects

We were only able to analyse data from females and male respondents. We found no difference between females and males and their willingness to consume insects (Table 6), although, our sample population did contain significantly more females than males (Table 2).

We found a correlation between age and participants’ willingness to consume insects. Participants aged >55 (69.6%, n = 23) were significantly less willing to consume insects than those aged 35-54 (93.8%, n = 64), and 18-34 (87.2%, n = 78), respectively, ($P=0.006$), (Table 6).

We compared participants diets with their reported willingness to consume insects. Overall, approximately three quarters of participants who described their diet as being composed of meat, flexitarian, and pescatarian, said they were willing to eat some form of insects or insect products (87.1%, 100%, 85.7%, respectively) (Table 6). Participants who described their diet as being flexitarian were significantly more willing to consume insects compared to those who described their diet as meat eating or pescatarian ($P=0.023$). We were unable to compare participants who indicated a vegan and vegetarian diet on their willingness to consume insects due to a lack of participants. However, participants with a vegetarian diet indicated they were significantly more likely to say they wouldn’t eat insects than people who reported having a meat diet (55% vs 13%, respectively, $P=0.006$).

Correlations between age, diet and expressed willingness to consume insects on likelihood of Māori consuming insects under certain circumstances

We investigated the correlations between age, diet and expressed willingness to consume insects, and whether people were less or more likely to consume insects under three scenarios: insects that were native to Aotearoa New Zealand, insects that were fed on rongoā Rākau, or if they knew that the type of insect were once eaten by Māori. Trends within each of the three scenarios for age, diet and expressed willingness to consume insects were similar as follows (Table B3, Appendix B).

Under all three scenarios, age had little significance ($P<0.05$) on participants’ expressed likelihood of eating insects under these circumstances. There were no differences observed between people aged 18-34 (9.8%) and 35-54 (3.6%) however people aged >55 (28.9%) indicated they were significantly less likely to consume insects or insect products under these circumstances ($P<0.05$). But the results also showed that people over 55 are not completely opposed to consuming insects under the three scenarios (47.8% vs 72.7% vs 77.6%, respectively, $P<0.05$). Additionally, no correlation was observed between age and participants who reported a neutral stance towards insect consumption under these scenarios.

For two scenarios no trends were observed between participants’ likelihood of consuming insects and their diets (if the insects were fed rongoā Rākau, or if they knew the type of insect was once eaten by Māori). However, if the insects were native to Aotearoa New Zealand and farmed sustainably participants with an alternative diet indicated they would be more likely to consume insects than participants with a meat diet (82.0%, n = 41 vs 64.3%, n = 74).

Participants who indicated that they would eat some form of insect (Question 11), were significantly more likely to consume insects under the three scenarios (76.8% vs 31.7%).

Change in participants’ willingness to consume insects

Participants who initially reported that they would not eat insects (Q11) were asked at the end of the survey (A13), after considering the issues discussed throughout the survey, whether their perspective had changed. Among the 21 participants who originally said that they would not eat insects in Q11, 11 changed their perspective in Q13 saying they would now consider eating insects. This 52.4% (= 11/21) improvement was statistically significant ($P<0.001$) based on one proportion test, rejecting the null hypothesis of no change.

Insects that play a significant role in Māori culture

This study aimed to explore the cultural significance of insects to indigenous Māori to gain an understanding of the significance insects have within Māori culture and identify appropriate and inappropriate species for consumption.

The findings from this survey indicate awareness amongst participants of insects being culturally significant as food, rongoā, and other uses. These findings were consistent with previous studies by Grant (2014) and Miller (1952), which also revealed that Māori regarded insects as being significant in purākau (cultural narratives). Insects were described as kaitiaki (guardians) and were used in rongoā (traditional Māori medicine). Most participants who were able to name insects as being culturally significant to Māori recognised them as food, in particular the huhu grub. Our findings do however indicate a decline in mātauranga regarding the consumption of other insects in Aotearoa New Zealand, such as kihikihi/cicada, mānuka beetle, and pūriri moths. These insects have been identified as food sources in previous research (Grant, 2014; Meyer-Rochow, 2005; Miller, 1952). Additionally, 35% of participants did not perceive insects as having any cultural significance to Māori. Rumpold and Langen (2020) have highlighted that the type of insect shapes attitudes towards insect consumption. Therefore, to best promote insect consumption among Māori, it is important to investigate further if Māori would be willing to consume certain insects, particularly those considered to be kaitiaki or guardians.

Perspectives on consuming insects

Our results support recent findings that people from Aotearoa New Zealand are relatively open to trying insects as food (Payne et al., 2023). Despite the absence of previous insect consumption data of Māori in Aotearoa New Zealand, our study found that almost half of the participants have either eaten or know of their whānau eating insects. This is consistent with another recent study which reported that almost 59% of Aotearoa New Zealanders have previously consumed insects (Xia, 2021). Most of those who have previously eaten insects within our study have consumed locally sourced insects from Aotearoa New Zealand, suggesting that insect consumption may be successful adopted amongst Māori. Furthermore, our study found that 87% of participants would be willing to eat insects in some form, which is a higher percentage than that reported by Tucker (2014) who in a focus group study across Aotearoa New Zealand, found that only 52% were willing to consume insects.

Unlike gender trends from other literature observing males being more likely to consume insects than females (Payne et al., 2023; Tucker, 2014; Wilkinson et al., 2018), we did not find significant differences between genders. This may be due to cultural differences, as overall previous insect consumption was already high among participants. However, our results align with other studies in Europe which found no correlation between gender and willingness to consume insects (Wassmann et al., 2021). This indicates that insect consumption may be equally popular among both female and male Māori.

As in other findings (Payne et al., 2023; Roma et al., 2020; Verbeke, 2015), age was found to be an important factor in participants’ expressed willingness to consume insects, with younger participants being more willing to consume than older participants. Our study found that like Payne et al. (2023), there is a preference for processed insects in the form of a powder. Other studies indicate participants’ hesitance towards insect consumption unless the insects are prepared in a familiar manner or a powder form (Caparros Megido et al., 2014; Ngo and Moritaka, 2021; Payne et al., 2023). Ngo and Moritaka (2021) found that 60% of consumers were unlikely to accept whole insects as food, rather consumers were likely to accept insects as feed for livestock. Conversely, a significant proportion of our participants indicated a willingness to consume either whole or processed insects as well. This is interesting as although a small number of restaurants currently serve insects within Aotearoa New Zealand, when insects are ordered, they are served whole (Hyde, 2022). This suggest that current trends in insect consumption within Aotearoa New Zealand is to consume them in their whole form, rather than processing them into a powder and disguising them as some studies have suggested consumers prefer (Megido et al., 2016; Sogari et al., 2017; Tan et al., 2015; Tucker, 2014). House (2018) argues that disguising insects does not increase the uptake of insects as food in the Dutch market and suggests that whole insects may be more successful in normalising insects as food in the long term, as the distinct appearance and taste of whole insects may provide a more positive incentive for consumption. In our study, participants who have eaten insects or recognise them as culturally significant as food identified the huhu grub as the main insect consumed. Traditionally, the larvae are consumed whole (Grant, 2014; Miller, 1952), which further supports why Māori may be more open to eating entire insects.

Willingness to consume under different scenarios

We investigated the importance of obtaining sustainable food to Māori, given the reported sustainability of insects compared to transitional livestock. A survey conducted in 2018 (n = 1000) by Colmar (2018) found that just under half (40%) of participants identified as being highly committed to living a sustainable lifestyle. Our results exceed this as obtaining sustainable food was found to be highly important to Māori, aligning with the Māori belief of being kaitiaki/caretakers of the environment (Clarke, 2007; Grant, 2014). This suggest that Māori may be an ideal target market if insects are proven to be a sustainable and accessible food source.

The third part of this research aimed to investigate the acceptance of various insects’ products in Aotearoa New Zealand. The study evaluated the impact of three scenarios, including insects that are native to Aotearoa New Zealand and farmed sustainably, insects that are fed rongoā rākau and farmed sustainably, and knowledge of insects being once consumed by Māori. Participants indicated that they would be significantly more likely to consume insects and insect products under all three scenarios. This suggests that promoting native Aotearoa New Zealand insects fed rongoā rākau or insects that were once consumed by Māori could be used as a marketing strategy to potentially increase Māori likelihood of consuming insects. Although traditional knowledge is a valuable way to expand understanding of edible insects and their potential uses, it is also important to recognise the intellectual property rights of indigenous people and benefits that can be formed through partnerships (Yen, 2009). In Aotearoa New Zealand an obligation exists to uphold the principles of Te Tiriti O Waitangi/The Treaty of Waitangi (Anonymous, 1840), the founding document between European Settlers (the British Crown) and Indigenous Māori. The treaty obligates the Crown to guarantee Māori their continuing ownership of both cultural and physical elements as well as protecting Māori people and their property rights (Williams, 2001). Therefore, within Aotearoa New Zealand when exploring entomophagy, it is important to incorporate mātauranga Māori regarding the significance insects hold as well as perceptions around consumption. Opportunities should be presented to Māori led businesses or in cooperation with them to explore edible insects as a sustainable food product. While the majority of participants expressed a greater inclination to consume insects if they were native to Aotearoa New Zealand and farmed sustainably or if they were fed rongoā rākau, it is important to note the responses of those who would be less likely to consume them under these circumstances. Tucker (2014) identified concerns about possible environmental issues, particularly endangered species like the wētā. This may be why some people indicated a decreased likelihood of consuming insects if they were native, or there may be other cultural reasons which were not expressed by the participants. Further investigation is needed to fully comprehend why some individuals may be averse to eating native insects or insects fed rongoā rākau.

Correlations between gender, age, and diets on willingness of Māori consuming insects

As expected, participants who were initially willing to consume insects were significantly more likely to consume them under the three scenarios compared to those who were not initially willing (76.8% vs 31.7%). Interestingly, some participants who initially said they would not eat insects changed their opinions from negative to neutral or indicating they would be more likely to consume insects (Table B3, Appendix B). This suggests that these scenarios could be used to help convince consumers to consider trying insects.

Our study found that participants who identified as meat-eaters, flexitarians, or pescatarians were more willing to consume insects or insect products, with flexitarians being the most willing. These findings differ from previous research that found insect consumption to be lower among individuals with a strong focus on meat in their diet (Schlup and Brunner, 2018). In contrast to Verbeke (2015), we found that participants with vegetarian diets were less likely to eat insects than meat-eaters, which is supported by both Payne et al. (2023) and Wilkinson et al. (2018). At a national level, research suggests that around 10% of people in Aotearoa New Zealand are mostly meat free (Colmar, 2018). A lower proportion of participants within our study reported following a meat-free diet compared to Payne et al. (2023) and Tucker (2014) (6%, 13.5% and 8.8%, respectively). Our study could indicate a high consumption of meat amongst Māori, compared to the general population. However, due to the low representation of vegetarian and vegan diets in our study, further research is needed to understand the attitudes of Māori vegans and vegetarians towards insect consumption.

Change in participants’ willingness to consume insects

Education and awareness of insect consumption has been shown to prompt people’s interest and intentions around insect consumption (Schlup and Brunner, 2018; Sogari et al., 2019; Verneau et al., 2016). In our study, participants who were initially unwilling to consume insects showed a 52.4% improvement in their willingness to eat insects after being presented with information on the topic.

Limitations

Our survey results offer valuable insights into the current attitudes of Māori to insects as food, and their understanding of the traditional history of insect consumption prior to and following colonialisation. However, the results cannot be taken as a representation of all Māori or iwi (tribal) perspectives. Our sample population is relatively small. The online survey would have also limited the ability to further understand reasons why people may be hesitant to eat insect products under different scenarios. Further research focused on ways to reintroduce insects as a food source to Māori would be beneficial. Also, sensory sessions are required to gain more understanding of willingness to consume, and consider, insects as food.

Future marketing of insects as food in Aotearoa New Zealand

There seems to be agreement of the importance of marketing to enhance the consumption and acceptability of edible insects (Mancini et al., 2019; Mishyna et al., 2020; Roma et al., 2020). To best market insects as food, researchers have suggested they should be marketed as their own distinct category rather than marketed as an alternative to meat, as insects have their own unique taste and properties. This highlights the importance of sensory sessions and utilising individual insect species in marketing efforts (Deroy et al., 2015; Payne et al., 2023). Payne et al. (2023) identified that Aotearoa New Zealand consumers appear relatively informed of the health benefits insects as food can provide. This presents an opportunity to educate consumers and potential marketing opportunities for both businesses and researchers. Our results indicate that participants would be more likely to consume insects if they were fed rongoā rākau suggesting a desire for insects as food to have added health benefits. However, health benefits on their own are not enough for acceptance as the products also need to be appealing and taste good (Acosta-Estrada et al., 2021; Sogari et al., 2017). Our results contradict the suggestion by Payne et al. (2023) that insect consumption in Aotearoa New Zealand should be marketed towards young males who are conscious about their health and the environment as both Māori men and women (92.9% vs 84.7%, respectively) are open to consuming insect either in their entirety or as a processed product. Our results highlight an opportunity to work with Māori to revitalise mātauranga and insects as a sustainable food source.