Abstract
Cockroaches have been the subject of scientific investigation due of their potential as a protein source. While cockroaches are commonly associated with a repulsive image and can pose as pests in residential environments, several kinds of cockroaches have been classified as edible. There are several commonly encountered species of cockroaches, including Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758, Periplaneta australasiae Fabricius, 1775, Blaberus craniifer Burmeister, 1838, Blatta orientalis Linnaeus, 1758, Neostylopyga rhombifolia Stoll, 1813, and Periplaneta fuliginosa Serville, 1839. While there is not universal acceptance of cockroaches as a food source, a significant number of individuals from many countries have developed a cultural practice of consuming them. The nations encompassed within this group are Vietnam, Thailand, and Mexico. The utilization of cockroach as a potential protein substitute is linked to its substantial nutritional composition, particularly its high protein and amino acid content. This paper offers a detailed overview of cockroaches, encompassing their characteristics, nutritional composition, bioactive properties, the utilization of cockroaches as a food source, processed food derived from cockroaches, their cultivation, and potential adverse effects associated with the consumption of cockroaches. This publication is anticipated to serve as a valuable reference for comprehending the utilization of cockroaches as a constituent in food.
1 Introduction
Cockroaches have a long evolutionary history, spanning approximately 360 million years, and are considered a significant group of insect pests within urban ecosystems. Cockroaches have the ability to contaminate food, transmit infections, and induce allergic reactions and psychological discomfort (Shahraki et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2011). Cockroaches are commonly characterised as sizable, oval-shaped insects with a dorsoventrally flattened body structure, which allows for their easy identification based on their overall physical attributes. The length of the pest species varies between 10 and 50 mm. The cephalic region of the organism possesses a set of complex visual organs known as eyes, which are situated on the anterior side. Additionally, the ventral region of the organism also exhibits some characteristics.
Cockroaches, classified as hemimetabolous insects of the class Insecta and order Blattodea, share an intriguing lineage with termites. Their origins can be traced back to the Carboniferous period, dating approximately 300-350 million years ago (Bell et al., 2007; Khan and Ahmad, 2018; Wang et al., 2017). Both of them undergo incomplete metamorphosis. In terms of social behavior, both cockroaches and termites live in colonies and have a caste system such as workers, soldiers, and reproductively active individuals. The communication methods are similar. They use chemical signals which is pheromones, a chemical substance for transmitting information among members of the same species through signaling. Pheromones can influence their behavior including detecting the presence of predator and attracting mates. Color and posture also use as a way of communication (Bell et al., 2007; Harrison et al., 2018). For example, vibrations created through the head-banging motion can be detected by termites as these vibrations can travel long distance, allowing termites to warn their colonies about potential threats. Both species also exhibit the capability to identify individual members within their species, a crucial aspect for engaging in social behaviors and maintaining unity within their colonies (Bell et al., 2007; Harrison et al., 2018; Siddiqui et al., 2023). Currently, there is a recorded total of approximately 4,700 recognised species of cockroaches. Nevertheless, it is hypothesised that the actual number of species is likely to be at least twice as high as the current count (Siddiqui et al., 2023).
Cockroaches are a valuable source of protein, offering a more environmentally sustainable option due to their ability to consume a wide range of organic waste materials such as manure, leftover foods, vegetable and fruit, and grains discarded by breweries. Consequently, farmers have capitalised on this opportunity by rearing and selling cockroaches in large quantities, resulting in substantial profits (Akullo et al., 2018; Boate and Suotonye, 2020). Moreover, insects belonging to the order Blattodea typically exhibit a sturdy physique and are capable of thriving in challenging environments characterised by low levels of oxygen, inadequate lighting, high population density, and possess a significant nutritional content. Cockroaches have the potential to be cultivated as a nutritious food source for human consumption, medicinal purposes as well as a viable feed option for livestock, so contributing to sustainability efforts. Additionally, their utilization in managing food waste can be considered. Cockroaches are cost-effective to get and handle, and they are easily accessible both inside agricultural settings and residential environments. Cheap sources of proteins have been reported and are being presented as potential alternatives to the meat industry (Krongdang et al., 2023; Tang et al., 2019). To optimise the exploitation of cockroaches as a food source, it is imperative to investigate several species of cockroaches, their geographical distribution, nutritional composition, and bioactive substances. Additionally, it is crucial to examine the environmental implications associated with their cultivation and assess the degree of their current consumption. Consequently, a comprehensive study including these aspects is warranted. Table 1 show about the list of edible cockroaches and the way to consume it in different countries.
List of edible cockroaches
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
2 Methodology
The terms “cockroach human food,” extracted from the Scopus databases from 2015-2019. Data were used to explore the relationships between scientific findings and cockroach as human food in a form of bibliometric network map (Figure 1). Figure 1A shows the bibliometric mapping, it was able to classify the terms into 6 different groups indicated by different colors, namely green, red, dark blue, yellow, purple, and light blue. The largest circles in Figure 1B represent the most prevalent author-selected phrases are “cockroach,” “cockroaches,” and “asthma.” The distribution of data from bibliometric mapping shows that there are still very few scientific articles that specifically discuss cockroach as human food. Therefore, this review article will contribute to the expansion of the database in terms of information that focus on the cockroach as human food.
(A) Scientific research bibliometric network map on edible cockroach. The four-color or more cluster representation of the underlying network. A show of how the scientific journals are related, and an overlay visualization. (B) identifies a time range during which the keyword was present. The VOSviewer program was used to make this figure (Jan van Eck and Waltman, 2018). Data were acquired from the Scopus database Utilizing the keywords “cockroach” AND “human” AND “food” and the time range 2015-2019.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
We also applied the terms “cockroach”, “cockroaches”, “cockroach human food”, “edible insect”, and “food” extracted from Scopus, Science Direct, Pubmed, Google Scholar, and Springer to understand the relationships between scientific outputs and cockroach as human food. The articles were carefully chosen and selected following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) guidelines. Published articles then were extracted using Mendeley references manager (https://www.mendeley.com/) with the following criteria: (1) name of the author; (2) publication year; (3) year of study; (4) type of alternative protein used; and (5) results. In the beginning, 199 result were achieved through the databases. From these, 110 articles were excluded due to not being related to cockroaches as human food. Five articles were excluded since they reported unrelated parameters. Finally, 84 articles remained for this systematic review. The algorithm search key for the published article was set from 2007 to 2023, using the MESH terms (“cockroaches”) AND (“human food”) AND (“edible insect” OR “foods” OR “bioactive” OR “phytochemicals”) (Figure 2).
PRISMA full diagram of the article selection.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
3 Result and discussion
Record of consumption of edible cockroaches
The practice of consuming edible insects can be traced back around 7,000 years, as documented by Ramos-Elorduy (2009). A total of 2,300 species belonging to 18 distinct orders have been documented as viable sources of edible insects. Among these orders, five have been particularly well-documented, each with a minimum of 100 recorded instances. These insects are found in both aquatic and terrestrial habitats (Jongema, 2017). The bulk of these specimens are obtained from natural habitats, while several species are cultivated on a significant scale. Ingestion of insects has been observed on a global scale (Van Huis et al., 2013). Lepidopterans, Orthopterans, Isopterans, and Hymenopterans are widely recognised as prevalent food sources in numerous regions. Entomophagy is observed to be widely practiced in tropical and sub-tropical locations, mostly driven by cultural and religious factors, which are influenced by the warm and moist climate prevalent in these areas (Jongema, 2017). Tropical insects typically exhibit a larger physical size and possess a very consistent life history, factors that can enhance their suitability for harvesting (Tang et al., 2019). The preference for young insect forms, such as pupae and larvae, stems from their high content of amino acids and fatty acids. These nutritional components not only contribute to their overall nutritional value, but also impart a distinctive and exceptional flavor.
The global population’s rapid growth has placed significant strain on the production of animal protein. As a result, individuals are currently confronted with the persistent issue of protein deficiency and are actively exploring other sources of protein. Entomophagy is widely regarded as a highly favorable option. The quick provision of a diverse range of nutrients makes it a potential approach for addressing famine (Van Huis et al., 2013; Tang et al., 2019). Considerable emphasis has been placed on the exploitation and production of edible insects. There has been a notable rise in the influx of individuals entering the sector. Nevertheless, there is still a need for the development of the entire industrial chain pertaining to edible insects, encompassing fundamental research as well as marketing strategies (Boate and Suotonye, 2020).
In many regions of China, a wide array of edible insect species have been traditionally incorporated into the local diet (FAO, 2021). China continues to be one of the world’s largest consumers of exotic foods, including cockroaches. Because of its diminutive size, it is typically consumed as a snack or as a topping to a dish that is lacking. The species of cockroach, Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758, also known as the American cockroach, is widely recognised as a consumable species among various cockroach types. This is particularly evident in countries such as China, where they are deliberately bred in controlled environments, subsequently distributed to farmers for livestock feed, and made available to the general public for consumption as food (Boate and Suotonye, 2020). Cockroaches are roasted over charcoal flames and sold by street vendors in the Guangdong province. They are also common in night markets, when both cooked and live animals are sold. Cockroaches can be bought alive from the vendor, or, for an extra cost, you can have the cockroaches killed and prepared for consumption on your behalf by the vendor. In addition to selling centipedes, cicadas, and crickets, specialised sellers in China sell a wide variety of related insects (Feng et al., 2018).
Vietnam is home to a large cockroach population, and the insect has made its way into local cuisine. Vietnamese folks consume cockroaches in a variety of ways. The most frequent include frying, boiling, roasting, and adding them into dishes. Cockroaches are considered a delicacy by some. Cockroach recipes can be found all around Vietnam. “Cockroach salad” is a common dish that consists of whole cockroaches that have been cooked and then tossed with lettuce, cabbage, and other vegetables before being marinated with garlic, lime juice, and cayenne pepper. While it can be consumed as a full meal, it is more commonly offered as an appetizer or finger food during social gatherings. There are a variety of additional ways to make popular meals in Vietnamese cuisine. Cockroaches can be made as a tasty snack by roasting them over a burning flame until they are crispy and then dipping them in a traditional fish sauce, much like marshmallows are made in the West (World Population Review, 2023). Some families routinely prepare tacos and tortillas with roasted cockroaches roasted over an open flame. In the absence of tortillas, roasted cockroaches can serve as a viable protein option in salads or as an enhancer for the texture and flavor of traditional rice and beans (World Population Review, 2023).
In Mexico, there is a prevalent practice of consuming insects that have been taken from the wild. It is worth noting that the sale and marketing of edible insects in this context are predominantly unregulated. The practice of harvesting grasshoppers for the purpose of food and feed is commonly regarded as an informal method of pest management for crops such as corn, bean, and alfalfa. However, there have been reports indicating that individuals residing in specific regions cultivating genetically modified crops exhibit a tendency to refrain from collecting insects from their fields. This behavior is attributed to concerns regarding potential health consequences associated with the consumption of insects that have fed on genetically modified crops (FAO, 2021) (Figure 3).
Map heat of cockroaches consumption.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
The amino acids distribution in three species of cockroaches.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Mexican cuisine has limited prevalence of cockroaches. However, they are occasionally encountered in specific regions as a condiment or a delicacy for gustatory pleasure. It is noteworthy that cockroaches possess an unusually elevated protein content, rendering them a potentially sustainable dietary source, particularly for individuals encountering challenges in muscle gain or possessing inherently rapid metabolic rates. Cockroaches are frequently incorporated as toppings in nacho dishes and are occasionally consumed in specific taco preparations. Roaches are included in various different cuisines, depending on the geographical location.
The utilization of cockroaches as a food source is closely linked to the abundance of amino acids, which are found in substantial quantities across various species. Figure 4 illustrates the distribution of amino acid composition within the three distinct categories of cockroaches that have been synthesised and presented in a concise manner. According to the data presented in Figure 4, Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758, often known as the American cockroach, exhibits a somewhat elevated level of amino acid content. Hence, the prevalence of this particular form of consumption is higher in society relative to other forms (Boate and Suotonye, 2020). A more comprehensive analysis of its nutritional composition is elucidated in section 6.
Bioecology of cockroaches
Blattodea, the order that contain cockroaches and termites, stands as one of the most ancient surviving insect orders. Fossils of early cockroach ancestors trace back to the Paleozoic era, while those of cockroaches with a modern structure date back to the Cretaceous period, exceeding 140 million years ago (Bell et al., 2007). Blattodea comprises around 4,400 cockroach species spread across nearly 500 genera, along with approximately 3,000 termite species distributed among roughly 300 genera. The superfamily within the Blattodea order are Blattoidea which include the families of Blattidae, Archotermopsidae, Kalotermitidae, Rhinotermitidae, Termitidae, and Cryptocercidae. Another superfamily is Blaberoidea which includes the families of Blaberidae and Ectobiidae and the last one is Corydioidea which family is Corydiidae (Djernæs and Murienne, 2020).
Cockroaches exhibit characteristics of being highly primitive insects. The forebears of the subject in question resided approximately 200-360 million years ago during the Carboniferous Period, predating the existence of dinosaurs. The geological epoch under consideration is occasionally referred to as the “Cockroach Era” due to the notable prevalence of these insects during this time (Shahraki et al., 2013). During this period, the Earth’s environment exhibited warm and moist characteristics, which provided optimal conditions for their flourishing. Despite the current cooler and less humid climatic circumstances, it is noteworthy that contemporary cockroach species exhibit a remarkable resemblance to their fossilised counterparts from ancient times (Burgess, 1993). Typically, cockroaches that have adapted to cohabitating with humans require four essential elements in order to thrive within a residential setting. The essential requirements for individuals encompass the provision of water, sustenance, habitation, and thermal comfort. Cockroaches typically exhibit low survival rates in unoccupied residential dwellings. Various species of cockroaches exhibit modest variations in their requirements, facilitating the identification of areas for inspection and subsequent concentration of control measures (Piper and Antonelli, 1997).
Cockroaches are found in practically every sort of habitat where insects live. Cockroach fauna is most diverse in Africa and tropical America’s warm, humid climates. Many Polyphagidae (Arenivaga, Polyphaga) live in desert regions of North Africa, Asia, and the United States Southwest. The 4 genera of Periplaneta, 2 genera of Blatta and Blattella, and 3 genera of Blaberid are the most assigned domiciliary status among more than 50 species found in man-made environments. The majority of domiciliary cockroaches are African or Indo-Malayan in origin. Domiciliary species commonly disseminate and expand their range through local trade. Tropical cockroaches continue to increase as trade, particularly by air and sea, with tropical places expands.
Few research have been conducted on cockroach habitat preferences under natural settings, while laboratory studies have revealed preferences for temperature, humidity, light conditions, shelter types, and substrate. Cockroaches were counted in 50-cm-square samples to a depth of 15 cm. The number of nymphs discovered in each sample, which ranged from 0 to 47, was found to be positively associated to both the depth and quality of organic matter. Nymphs congregate in areas with bat guano, fruit, and twigs dropped by bats, and are absent from areas with dry soil, stones, or pebbles. As a result, the horizontal distribution of nymphs is related to the placements of bats in the cave that determine the positioning of guano (and other organic material). Female blaberids lay their eggs close to or on the substratum.
Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758, the American cockroach, has a reproductive behavior in which the females strategically adhere or position their egg case in areas that offer a higher probability of offspring survival. American cockroaches are quite prevalent in the wastewater systems of numerous cities in northern states. They are also present in commercial establishments such as restaurants, grocery stores, bakeries, and other facilities where food is made or stored. The aforementioned locations, namely boiler rooms, hot steam tunnels, basements, areas surrounding pipes, water heaters, and wet floor drains, are the most prevalent habitats for these entities. The coexistence of American cockroaches with German cockroaches is possible (Reierson et al., 2005; Ogg et al., 2006)
Periplaneta australasiae Fabricius, 1775, commonly known as the Australian cockroach, is predominantly observed in outdoor environments, where it forms permanent colonies and shares similar ecological preferences with the smokey brown cockroach, Periplaneta fuliginosa Serville, 1839. The Australian cockroach is commonly observed inhabiting various environments such as the bark of trees, firewood stacks, and areas characterised by high levels of dampness. This particular species has the ability to endure interior environments in regions with subtropical climates, even in the presence of lower temperatures. In such circumstances, the cockroach has the potential to colonise greenhouses, resulting in harm to plants, particularly seedlings. The Australian cockroach is additionally found living in various types of indoor surroundings, such as pipes that carry water, toilets, sinks, cupboards, and other enclosed spaces that are cool and dark (Jiang and Kaufman, 2015).
Blaberus craniifer Burmeister, 1838 or the death’s head cockroach can be observed in outdoor environments during distinct dispersal or migration periods. This species is indigenous to Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies. Furthermore, it has been imported into the southern region of Florida within the United States. These organisms are commonly located within forest ecosystems, namely occupying the lower layers of the forest floor, where they conceal themselves between decomposing leaf litter and decaying timber (Schal et al., 1984).
Blatta orientalis Linnaeus, 1758 is frequently encountered in outdoor environments, where it typically inhabits regions characterised by moderate temperatures, high humidity, and ample shade, particularly in close proximity to the ground or in areas containing organic matter. The organism frequently seeks shelter indoors in response to a decrease in temperature, however it exhibits a notable degree of resilience towards colder climatic conditions. Blatta orientalis Linnaeus, 1758 is frequently observed in many locations within residential structures, including basements, crawl spaces, interstitial spaces between the soil and foundation, beneath sidewalks, sewer pipes, floor drains, and beneath sinks. These regions are characterised by their moist and chilly conditions, which are conducive to the presence of Blatta orientalis Linnaeus, 1758. The cockroach navigates within the building through the plumbing system. In the vicinity of the residence, they may congregate in close proximity to or beneath receptacles designated for waste disposal. The species has a seasonal pattern, wherein mature individuals are observed during the spring and summer seasons (McCanless, 1969; Piper and Antonelli, 1997)
Neostylopyga rhombifolia Stoll, 1813 originated in the Indo-Malaysia region, has successfully established itself in multiple regions of the Western Hemisphere. This includes the northern portion of Australia, as well as numerous areas in the Western Hemisphere such as Mexico. Notably, this species has also traveled northward into Mexico, specifically near the border with Arizona. Additionally, a small number of adult specimens have been discovered in Southern California (Injica, 2023).
Periplaneta fuliginosa Serville, 1839 exhibits notable dissimilarities from previously documented members of the same genus even though the precise origin of this particular species remains uncertain. The initial description of the subject characterised it as subtropical, suggesting a rather restricted geographical range (Cochran, 1999). Cockroaches’ habitat preferences inside and outside of buildings are typically determined by the surrounding physical environment. Cockroach species such as Oriental (Blatta orientalis Linnaeus, 1758) and American (Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758) cockroaches exhibit a preference for areas with elevated humidity levels, typically found in damp terrestrial habitats like wastewater tanks and municipality sewer systems. The smoky brown (Periplaneta fuliginosa Serville, 1839) cockroaches exhibit a broad distribution across several habitats. The entities in question are commonly linked to arboreal organisms, timber materials, accumulations of foliage, voids inside structural walls, and the bases upon which structures are erected. There exists a positive association between temperature and cockroach density. There is a positive correlation between the environmental temperature of a certain location and the quantity of cockroaches inhabiting that area. There exists a negative link between humidity levels and the density of cockroaches. There is a positive correlation between humidity levels and the prevalence of cockroaches. Maintaining environmental sanitation encompasses various aspects such as ensuring environmental cleanliness, proper storage of food, and the absence of leftover food or organic materials. Additionally, it is crucial to maintain dry conditions in basements and other spaces located below ground level (Diyana et al., 2021; Syamsuar Manyullei et al., 2022).
Cockroaches possess chewing mouthparts located on their head, which they utilise to masticate or abrade food items that are too voluminous to be ingested in their entirety. Cockroaches possess a set of compound eyes, albeit with limited visual acuity, mostly enabling them to discern variations in light and darkness with relative ease. It is evident that these pests exhibit nocturnal behavior, as they are primarily active during the night and tend to conceal themselves during the day, likely due to their aversion to light. An additional anatomical feature located in the cephalic region is a set of elongated and highly developed appendages known as antennae. These sensory organs serve the purpose of detecting both olfactory cues and airborne vibrations. Within the cranium is a diminutive cerebral organ that orchestrates the diverse physiological processes of the human body (Ogg et al., 2006).
The thorax of all cockroaches is characterised by the presence of three pairs of legs. The majority of domestic species exhibit the presence of two pairs of wings in adult individuals, with the exception of the oriental cockroach, wherein both males and females possess underdeveloped wings. Even though the winged species have limited flying capabilities, they possess exceptional running ability. Numerous cockroach species possess the ability to defy the force of gravity and traverse vertical surfaces such as walls or ceilings. A substantial, plate-like structure is seen on the thorax, situated immediately posterior to the head. The pronotum, being endowed with distinctive color patterns, serves as a crucial anatomical characteristic that facilitates the differentiation of various cockroach species (Baumholtz et al., 1997; Ogg et al., 2006).
The abdominal region of the cockroach serves as the anatomical location for its reproductive system. The eggs are surrounded by a durable egg casing that serves as a protective barrier against desiccation. The female of a particular species, known as the German cockroach, exhibits the behavior of carrying the egg case in her possession until the eggs reach an advanced stage of development, prior to hatching. Cockroaches exhibit a lack of parental care and may engage in cannibalistic behavior, consuming their offspring in the absence of sustenance. In addition to consuming damaged and deceased cockroaches, they also engage in the consumption of such organisms. Located at the posterior end of the abdomen, there exists a bilateral arrangement of appendages known as cerci, which serve as sensory organs. The cerci exhibit analogous functionality to antennae, as they possess the ability to detect vibrations propagated through either the air or the ground. Cerci exhibit a direct anatomical connection to the legs of the cockroach through abdominal nerve ganglia, serving as a significant adaptive mechanism for survival. When a cockroach detects a stimulus through its cerci, it initiates leg movement, even prior to the transmission of this information to the brain. In order to successfully intercept a sprinting cockroach, one must possess considerable swiftness (Ogg et al., 2006; Siddiqui et al., 2023). Morphology description of some cockroaches species can be seen in Table 2 and the digital micrographs of several cockroaches body parts in Figure 5.
Morphology description and distribution of some cockroach
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Digital micrographs of body parts of Periplaneta americana. (A) Unmacerated head capsule of male P. americana antero-lateral view; (B) unmacerated head capsule of male P. americana posterior view; (C) right maxilla in anterior view; (D) right maxilla in posterior view; € labium in posterior view. Figures were modified from the work of (Wipfler et al., 2016).
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758, also known as the American cockroach, is the largest among the prevalent peridomestic cockroach species, with an average length of approximately 4 cm. This phenomenon is observed in many structures located in the state of Florida, with a particular prevalence in commercial buildings. The cockroach is primarily observed in steam heat tunnels or huge institutional buildings within the northern region of the United States. The abundance of the American cockroach is surpassed only by that of the German cockroach (Reierson et al., 2005; Zahraei-ramazani et al., 2018).
Periplaneta australasiae Fabricius, 1,775 eggs are laid within an ootheca, a structure that serves as a collective housing for the eggs, which can reach a maximum length of 11 mm. The ootheca, a protective casing containing eggs, is affixed to the posterior end of the adult female’s abdomen and deposited far in advance of the hatching of the eggs. Nymphs exhibit the absence of wings, however they may possess rudimentary wing bud structures at later developmental phases. Australian cockroach nymphs have a few yellow dots towards the top of their abdomen. Because of this trait, this species may be easily distinguished from similar ones in the genus Periplaneta. The adult specimens have a length of approximately 32-35 mm and display a color spectrum spanning from reddish-brown to dark-brown. Furthermore, these individuals possess fully formed wings that are fully functioning, enabling them to engage in gliding flight. Australian cockroaches are a species that are notoriously difficult to tell apart between the sexes only by looking at their dorsal (top) sides as adults. But there are distinguishing features just at the abdomen button. The styli and cerci are two sets of appendages found at the end of the abdomen of an adult male cockroach. Cerci are the only appendages present in this region of an adult female. Moreover, the female exhibits the presence of an abdominal plate, which is a flat structure that extends beyond the final genuine segment (Jiang and Kaufman, 2015).
The oriental cockroach, also known as Blatta orientalis Linnaeus, 1758 is characterised by its dark brown to black coloration. In the avian species under consideration, the male individuals possess wings that extend across approximately 75% of their bodily length, while the female counterparts exhibit notably shorter wings, which can be described as rudimentary in nature. The inner wing has a folding mechanism resembling that of a fan, and possesses a membranous structure. The external region of the wing exhibits a slender, robust, and resilient composition. The identification of the male can be determined by the presence of styli located between a pair of jointed cerci. Both the male and female individuals of this species exhibit the characteristic of being unable to fly (McCanless, 1969).
Harlequin cockroach (Neostylopyga rhombifolia Stoll, 1813) has a range between 20 and 25 mm length. The tegmina, or forewings, in both males and females exhibit diminutive lobes, measuring approximately 4 mm in length, while the hind wings are completely absent. The aesthetically pleasing coloration and intricate patterns exhibited by this particular species of cockroach have garnered significant admiration, leading to its popularity as a pet among numerous enthusiasts worldwide. This species exhibits rapid locomotion and possesses the ability to lay eggs, as well as the capability to ascend smooth surfaces. Under ideal circumstances, female organisms have the capacity to produce a substantial number of oothecas, which are egg cases that typically contain approximately 15-30 eggs per case. Juvenile individuals exhibit a uniform tan coloration, which gradually transforms with successive molts, ultimately acquiring the distinctive pattern that distinguishes adult specimens (Injica, 2023).
The cockroach lifecycle.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Life cycle profile of some cockroaches
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Periplaneta fuliginosa Serville, 1839 is a cockroach with a consistent dark coloration. The level of darkness is comparable to that of Blatta orientalis Linnaeus, 1758. The length of the object is between 31 and 35 mm. Both male and female individuals possess completely grown wings. The male’s presence of styli and the female’s thick abdomen can be used to distinguish between the sexes. The nymphs exhibit a consistent and homogeneous black coloration. The appearance of juvenile nymphs is characterised by a resemblance to individuals in whom the majority of the upper surface of the middle thoracic segment is whitish, as well as the whitish edges along the sides of the second abdominal segment (Cochran, 1999).
A manifestation of cockroaches comprises individuals of varying sizes, encompassing sexually active adults often equipped with wings, as well as immature ones lacking wings. In contrast to certain insect species, such as butterflies, both immature and adult cockroaches coexist within the same environment and use identical food sources. The juvenile form of cockroaches, referred to as nymphs, exhibit reduced physical dimensions compared to their adult counterparts, and emerge from the egg capsules that are laid by the adult female. As the nymph undergoes growth, it undergoes molting, a process in which it sheds its exoskeleton to accommodate its increasing size. The size of each nymphal stage progressively increases, culminating in the emergence of the adult following the last nymphal stage. The life cycle of the cockroach is depicted in Figure 6, illustrating the several stages including the egg, nymph, and adult phases. Every species of cockroach possesses a distinct and specific quantity of developmental stages in its immature phase. Life cycle profile of some cockroach can be seen in Table 3.
Cockroaches may maximise their reproductive fitness across their life cycle by producing large numbers of eggs to make up for the constant threat of death from environmental causes. A female cockroach can generate an egg capsule about 9 days after attaining sexual maturity, and each capsule contains roughly 14 embryos. Upon the completion of their molting stages, juvenile cockroaches will attain sexual maturity within a span of 183 to 365 days, and afterwards exhibit a lifetime of approximately 548 days. Nevertheless, there exist subtle variations between several species (Ogg et al., 2006; Siddiqui et al., 2023). Nevertheless, there exist subtle variations among several species. Below, a comprehensive description of each species will be provided.
The egg case of the American cockroach (Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758) typically has a number of 14 to 16 eggs. The nymphs undergo a series of 13 molts throughout a span of around 548 days, emerging as sexually mature adults after a period of approximately 42 days. In favorable environmental conditions, adult females are capable of producing an egg case during a span of around 7 days, and they have a lifespan exceeding 365 days. American cockroaches exhibit a remarkable capacity for reproductive output. However, due to the presence of severe winters in northern states, the development rate and reproductive output of American cockroaches are comparatively lower than those observed in southern areas (Ogg et al., 2006)
Eggs, five stages of nymphal development, and an adult cockroach are all part of a whole life cycle for the Australian cockroach. The ootheca, a structure produced by certain organisms, has the capacity to house up to 24 embryos. The process of embryonic development within the ootheca typically takes approximately 40 days. The duration of the nymphal stage spans a period of 183 to 365 days. The rate of maturation in nymphs is slower when they are raised in isolation compared to when they are raised in a group. According to Cornwell’s study conducted in 1968, the initial ootheca production by a recently molted female typically occurs within a span of approximately 24 days. It is frequently deposited or affixed within concealed fissures and crevices. In the course of her lifespan, an adult female has the capacity to produce approximately 20-30 oothecae. The process of reaching the adult stage typically takes approximately 365 days, and adult females have been seen to live for a further 122 to 183 days after reaching maturity (Jiang and Kaufman, 2015).
The female Blatta orientalis Linnaeus, 1758 typically produces an average of eight egg capsules over its lifespan. The ootheca, or egg capsule, typically consists of a vertical arrangement of approximately 16 eggs, organised in pairs within the egg casing. The egg capsule exhibits a variable duration of transportation, ranging from 12 hours to five days, before being deposited in a thermally favorable and protected habitat with abundant food resources. The incubation period of the oriental cockroach typically ranges from 42 to 81 days. The female does not provide any support or aid to the offspring. The nymphal stage of development in insects typically involves a series of seven molts, culminating in adulthood, a process that spans around one year. The lifespan of an adult Blatta orientalis Linnaeus, 1758 ranges from 34 to 180 days, and the process of pairing can occur during any season (Qadri, 1938; McCanless, 1969).
Economic importances of edible cockroaches
By 2024, the Asia-Pacific region’s market for edible insects is predicted to increase by US $270 million. The market is projected to grow from around US $400 million in 2018 to nearly US $1.2 billion by 2023. This represents an annual growth rate of around 25% (Govorushko, 2019; Liceaga, 2021). Agriculture of insects and the quantity of their output have increased dramatically in several Southeast Asian nations. These countries include Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos. As the world’s population continues to grow, Thailand could emerge as a major supplier of edible insect goods (Guiné et al., 2021). Insect goods and insect protein have been growing in popularity around the world, and Thailand has been at the forefront of this trend since 2004. The practice of insect farming is widespread in Thailand, particularly concentrated in the northeastern region of the country. Around 7,500 tons of insects are consumed each year in Thailand as food and feed (Tagawa et al., 2022). This number includes insects that are collected or produced in adjacent countries including Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia. Southeast Asia, and notably Thailand, is a major producer of edible insects because of the region’s established farming and trading infrastructure. The absence of organised efforts to assure both safety and shelf life is one of the most significant challenges facing the sector of edible insects as food (Hanboonsong et al., 2013). There has been a growing trend of online trading of insects and insect-derived items facilitated by diverse social media platforms. Consequently, the collection, cultivation, and commercialization of insects serve as a source of employment and revenue for a substantial number of individuals in Thailand and its surrounding nations. Eleven countries in Europe, fourteen in Oceania, twenty-three in the Americas, twenty-nine in Asia, and thirty-five in Africa now partake in the practice of eating insects. China, Mexico, Thailand, Japan, and India are the biggest users among these countries because they eat the most species (Jongema, 2017; Baiano, 2020). The export and import of edible insect products, particularly frozen and processed commodities, have been major drivers of the market’s expansion in recent years in Thailand. Cellulose from cockroach wings and cockroach powder is utilised in South Korea for the production of facial masks and the treatment of burns (Boate and Suotonye, 2020; Nguyen et al., 2020).
Similar conditions are also found in the cultivation of cockroaches. The farm located in Jinan, China is prepared to supply pharmaceutical companies with dried cockroaches for commercial purposes. According to the farmer, the insects are easily reared and yield a significant profit. The preferred species for this objective is Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758, often known as the American cockroach. The cost of dried cockroaches has experienced a significant tenfold rise, escalating from approximately US $2 per pound to a maximum of US $20. This surge in price can be attributed to the accumulation of pulverised cockroach powder by traditional medicine makers. China currently possesses over 100 cockroach farms, with new facilities emerging at a rate nearly equivalent to the rapid reproductive capabilities of these prolific insects (Demick, 2013). Figure 7 shows the impact of cockroaches as edible foods on economy.
The impact of cockroaches as edible foods on economy.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Nutritional value of edible cockroaches as human food and feed
Cockroaches possess significant nutritional value, rendering them very appropriate as a food source (Akullo et al., 2018; Boate and Suotonye, 2020). In general, cockroaches possess evident advantages in terms of nutritional value. The nutritional contents of plant-based diets bear a striking resemblance to those of conventional animal-based foods (Tang et al., 2019). These organisms possess significant potential as a valuable source of essential nutrients and bioactive compounds. Cockroaches possess a significant abundance of animal protein. Cockroaches protein is considered the third most prominent protein source, following microbes and cellular creatures. The curiosity of numerous researchers worldwide has been drawn to cockroaches protein due to its abundance of varieties, rapid reproductive rate, substantial protein content, minimal fat and cholesterol content, and efficient assimilation by the human body. This renders cockroaches protein a valuable source of superior macromolecules. The milk-like substance produced by the Pacific Beetle Cockroach (Diploptera punctata Eschscholtz, 1822) is regarded as a comprehensive a protein-rich crystalline, supplying all nine essential amino acids essential for protein synthesis that must be acquired through dietary intake. Furthermore, it serves as a rich source of protein, carbohydrates, and fats, rendering it a nutritionally valuable food for the growing offspring of this distinct cockroach species (Niaz et al., 2018) which can be beneficial for human consumption.
Table 4 displays the nutritional value of cockroaches from dry matter. This research data provides significant insights into the moisture, crude protein, lipid, ash and carbohydrate content of various cockroach species. This is particularly relevant due to the possibility of cockroaches to serve as an alternative protein source in lieu of traditional livestock sources. However, these tables did not have complete data for each species because the lack of resources. Figure 8 shows the overview on human consumption of cockroaches.
Nutritional profile of some cockroaches’ species
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
The overview on human consumption of cockroaches.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
The crude protein content typically constitutes approximately 60% of the dry weight. Cockroaches often possess a higher amount of crude protein in comparison to regular meat, however their amino acid contents are generally similar. In terms of their nutritional value, these food sources are capable of supplying necessary amino acids at an optimal level (Tang et al., 2019). The amino acid compositions of Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758 which is frequently consumed species are presented with the amino acid requirements of adults as outlined by the World Health Organization (Baiano, 2020). Compare to the American and Australian cockroach, Blaberus craniifer Burmeister, 1838 exhibit a deficiency or limited presence of cysteine, tyrosine, and tryptophan in their composition. In order to ensure a balanced diet, it is important to consider the inclusion of cockroaches as a significant portion of one’s supper. However, with the exception of these particular species, cockroaches generally fulfill the World Health Organization’s requirement for amino acids. The majority of individuals may obtain adequate quantities of amino acids that are essential by ingesting a balanced assortment of food items. Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1,758 exhibits a higher abundance of some amino acids in comparison to other species. The leucine content in Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758 and Blaberus craniifer Burmeister, 1838 is comparatively higher than Periplaneta australasiae Fabricius, 1775. In a comparable manner, the concentration of phenylalanine in Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758 is typically greatest than that seen in all other documented species. Table 5 displays the amino acid profiles of cockroaches.
Amino acid profile of some species of cockroaches
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Beside the fact that cockroaches are rich in protein and amino acid, the Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758 cockroach had a comparatively elevated crude fat content, measuring at 17.64%. This aligns with the recommended daily fat intake range (20-35%) for the human body (Boate and Suotonye, 2020). Fat has a crucial role in the morphological and biochemical processes of cellular functioning. The presence of fat in cockroaches has implications for storage preservation, as it reduces the likelihood of lipid oxidation, a process that often occurs in insects with too high-fat content. The presence of fat in dietary intake plays a significant role in boosting the sensory appeal of foods, cellular functioning, and the facilitation of vitamin transfer (Tang et al., 2019). However, a limited amount of data was obtained pertaining to the fatty acid and mineral composition of each species because many researchers that have worked in this field only report the information from Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758. Multiple researchers have presented findings pertaining to the composition of fatty acids and minerals in various species of American cockroaches. Table 6 shows the fatty acid content of American cockroach.
Fatty acid content of American cockroaches
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and saturated fatty acids (SFAs) often constitute a majority of over 73.91% of total fat content. The composition of SFAs primarily consists of palmitic acid and stearic acid. The saturated fatty acid (SFA) level is often lower in comparison to the monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) content, with the latter being considered more beneficial for human dietary patterns. Oleic acid, a prevalent monounsaturated fatty acid found in the human diet, is the predominant source of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) in insects. Their participation in nutrition has been observed to have a beneficial effect on reducing blood pressure in individuals, and exhibits promising prospects for treating inflammatory, immunological, and cardiovascular conditions. The levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in American cockroaches are equivalent to those of saturated fatty acids (SFAs), but comparatively lower than monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs). When comparing the levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in chicken and pork, American cockroaches is not the highest but still in the same range. Different dietary treatments have yielded reported PUFA/SFA ratios for pork within the range of 0.11 to 2.042, chicken breast around 0.308 to 2.402 meanwhile American cockroaches was reported to be 0.2546 (Chen and Liu, 2020; Khajuie et al., 2022). The proportion of PUFAs to SFAs serves as a crucial measure of fat quality, and it is advisable for the diet to include a ratio exceeding 0.40. In terms of human nutrition, American cockroach fat demonstrates a more favorable PUFA/SFA ratio compared to chicken breast, drumstick, pork, and other meat sources (Orkusz, 2021). Linoleic acid, a prominent constituent of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) found in insects, has demonstrated anti-inflammatory properties, as well as potential benefits in reducing acne and promoting skin whitening (Tang et al., 2019).
Minerals are recognised for their significant contributions to metabolic and physiological functions within living organisms. The American cockroach has elevated levels of minerals, suggesting its potential as a valuable source of both micro and macro minerals for human populations, particularly for individuals such as young, pregnant, and breastfeeding mums, as well as for livestock. In general, there was an observed increase in mineral content across all types of minerals with the exception of phosporus during the transition of cockroaches from the nymph phase to the adult phase. The abundance of phosphorus exhibits a decrease as nymph cockroaches undergo metamorphosis into adult individuals. Table 7 shows the mineral content of American cockroach.
Mineral content of American cockroach
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Magnesium is classified as a macronutrient that is essential for daily consumption in significant quantities within the human diet. The recommended daily intake for men ranges from 400 to 420 milligrammes, while for women it ranges from 310 to 320 milligrammes. The analysis unveiled the presence of 362.00 mg/100 g in the dry weight of adult cockroaches. This amount is much higher than the magnesium levels in nymph stage cockroaches. This value can also serve as a supplementary source for meeting the daily dietary requirements of individuals, particularly women and expectant mums. This is because magnesium plays a crucial role in protein synthesis, muscle development, nerve conduction, immune system function, metabolic activities, and the synthesis of biomolecules involved in energy production. Additionally, it should be noted that phospholipids serve as integral constituents of both the cellular membrane and chromosomes. Moreover, they play a crucial role in facilitating ion transportation and cell migration processes (Tang et al., 2019; Boate and Suotonye, 2020).
Sodium, classified as a macro nutrient, plays a crucial role in maintaining adequate fluid balance, facilitating nerve transmission, and enabling muscle contraction. The recommended daily intake of sodium chloride is typically advised to be between the range of 150-380 mg per day. The measured amount of dry weight in adult cockroach (110.68 mg/100 g) is higher than the nymph (74.40 mg/100 g). Furthermore, this quantity significantly above the recommended daily intake of sodium chloride for humans, indicating that it can effectively supplement one’s daily sodium chloride consumption. Potassium is an essential macromineral that is necessary in significant quantities for humans to maintain adequate fluid balance, facilitate neuronal transmission, and enable muscular contraction. Additionally, it serves as an electrolyte within the human body and plays a crucial role being a cofactor for several enzymes. The absence of this nutrient results in symptoms such as weariness, muscular cramping, and stomach discomfort. The American cockroaches were discovered to possess a significantly elevated amount of 224.00 mg/100 g of the nymph and 242.54 mg/100 g of the adult, with the required daily intake of 4.7 g (Tang et al., 2019; Boate and Suotonye, 2020).
The comparison of nutritional content of edible cockroaches and daily intake. Created with BioRender.com.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Calcium is an essential mineral component that plays a significant role in human dietary requirements. In the Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758, calcium content was found to be 38.50 mg/100 g of the nymph stage and 468 mg/100 g of the adult stage. Calcium, a mineral of utmost importance, plays a vital role in the formation and maintenance of skeletal structures such as bones and teeth. Additionally, it is involved in crucial physiological processes like relaxation, nerve functionality, regulation of blood pressure, immune system maintenance, and acting as a messenger in cellular signalling pathways. Preventing bone loss is of utmost significance (Tang et al., 2019; Boate and Suotonye, 2020).
Trace minerals are minerals found in living organisms in small amounts. They can be categorized into nutritionally essential elements, potentially essential elements and nonessential elements. Essentials trace minerals such as Iron (Fe), Zinc (Zn), Manganese (Mn), Cuprum (Cu), Iodin (I), and Selenium (Se) are used for a proper growth, development, physiology, and to perform vital metabolic activities. In Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758, iron content was found to be 1,48 mg/100 g dry matters for nymph and 274.60 mg/100 g dry matters for adult stage. The amount of iron from adult cockroaches exceeded the recommended daily amount for adult men and women which is 18 mg/day. Zinc content was found to be 3,27 mg/100 g dry matters from nymph stage and 4.74 mg/100 g dry matters from adult stage with the daily intake of 11 mg for adult men and 8 mg for adult women. Copper content was found to be 0,79 mg/100 g dry matters from nymph stage and 7,54 mg/100 g dry matter from adult stage. The copper content from nymph stage can fulfilled at least 87% of Copper recommended daily intake for adult (0,8 gram). Selenium and Iodin content was found to be 0,03 mg/100 g dry matters from nymph stage (Bhattacharya et al., 2016; Rivas, 2024). Figure 9 explained the comparison between edible cockroaches’ nutritional content and adult daily intake.
Cockroaches serve several functions not only as human food just like what has been described above, but as animal feed as well (Akullo et al., 2018; Boate and Suotonye, 2020). Cockroaches possess as insect with high nutritious content. In China, cockroaches reared as feed for livestocks. Farm animal diets especially monogastrics need protein source and is crucial for development. This makes protein source is the most expensive category for feed ingredients. The major plant protein comes from soya and animal protein comes from fishmeal (Barrows et al., 2008; Ravindran, 2013). Their elevated costs stem from their suitability for human consumption and consequent high demand. To solve this problem, farmers need to search for a less expensive protein source but also nutritious (Boateng et al., 2018). Insect protein stands out as a promising alternative to replace both soya and fishmeal. A study was carried out to assess the nutrient composition and impact of cockroach (Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758) meal on the growth performance and relative weights of some internal organs of albino rats. Twelve male albino rats were used and randomly assigned to three dietary treatments: T0 (no cockroach), T1 (2% cockroach), and T3 (4% cockroach). The result showed no significant differences in feed intake and feed conversion ratio (FCR) for various treatments but adding cockroach meal can decreased feed expenses by 3% and 7% in dietary treatments T1 and T2, respectively. It was also recorded that rats with cockroach meal have a lower relative heart weight and rats on diets containing 4% cockroach meal have a lower relative kidney weight. Providing diets with up to 4% cockroach meal did not adversely affect the feed intake, average daily gain (ADG), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) of the rats. Hence, it is safe to include cockroach meal at a level of up to 4% in the diets of monogastrics (Boateng et al., 2018).
Blaptica dubia De Geer, 1752 has been identified as a substitute protein source for creating environmentally friendly feed for many reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Several studies have documented that this species of cockroaches has the potential as alternative protein source to substitute fish meal in aquafeeds (Lourenço et al., 2022). In comparison to fish meal, Dubia cockroach exhibited significantly lower (
Comparation of cockroaches’ chemical composition with soybean and fish meal
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Based on several studies, the result shows that cockroaches can be an alternative protein source as feed for livestock. Cockroaches are comparable with soybean and fishmeal that contain 43.8-75.4% crude protein (Banaszkiewicz, 2011; Hopley, 2016; Ngaira et al., 2022; Vrabec et al., 2015). Blaptica dubia De Geer, 1752 yielded the highest crude protein content with a value of 64,4%. There was some variation in all chemical composition as stated in Table 9. This happened due to different reproductive state and the difference in method used for each study. Protein and fat, when considered as proportions of the entire body mass, demonstrate an inverse relationship. Generally, whole invertebrate prey supplied to captive insectivores offer crude protein levels surpassing the estimated needs of domestic carnivores, ranging from 15% of dietary dry matters for dogs at maintenance to 32% for reproduction and growth in cats. The crude fat content of most whole prey, including invertebrates, exceeds the minimum dietary levels recommended for domestic carnivores. Dog and cats usually require at leat 5-9% fat in the diet at various stage of growth (Oonincx and Dierenfeld, 2012). Alongside with basic nutrients, amino acid composition is the most important aspect because not only specified in protein quantity, protein quality is necessary for most farm animal (Vrabec et al., 2015).
Amino acid profile based on dry matter compared with soybean and fishmeal
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
It can be seen from Table 9 that the amino acid profiles for Blaptica dubia De Geer, 1752 and Eublaberus distanti Kirby W.F., 1903 were relatively high compared to low protein soybean and fishmeal. The majority of amino acid profiles are lower if compared to high protein soybean and fishmeal. Cockroaches are also used as feed for poultry industry because insects are integral components of poultry’s natural diets and are viewed as promising ingredients for animal feed due to their short life cycle and ease of production and handling. Poultry’s dietary protein needs are commonly fulfilled by including 17-22% of plant protein supplements, 1-2% of animal protein supplements, 0.2-0.5% of synthetic amino acids, and a daily intake of 1% linoleic fatty acid in their diet. A study conducted by (Ngaira et al, 2022) compared amino and fatty acid content of Blatella germanica Linnaeus, 1758 with fishmeal to see if this species can be use as an alternative protein source as seen in Tables 10 and 11.
Amino acid content of Blatella germanica Linnaeus, 1758 compared with 1 fishmeal
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Fatty acid content of Blatella germanica Linnaeus, 1758 compared with fishmeal
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Based on this study, Blatella germanica Linnaeus, 1758 meal contains approximately 11% fat, which is adequate to sustain chickens. However, unsaturated fatty acids present in the meal can undergo oxidation and become rancid when exposed to air or other active compounds. Cockroach meals with a higher unsaturated fatty acid content (around 70%) may pose a challenge to the stability of compounded feeds unless appropriate antioxidants are added during formulation. Defatting can be employed to reduce fat content and increase the concentration of crude protein. This makes a meal contain Blatella germanica Linnaeus, 1758 with a protein content ranging from 56% to 58%, is a SuperPRO feed and can serve as a protein ingredient to either replace or complement fishmeal in broiler chicken diets (Ngaira et al, 2022).
Nutraceutical properties and medicinal uses of edible cockroaches
Medicinal uses of edible cockroaches
In the pharmaceutical sector, insects are utilised for the purpose of developing drug formulations to treat various medical conditions, including gastroenteritis, duodenal ulcers, pulmonary tuberculosis, cancer, AIDS, and possessing potent anti-carcinogenic properties. This is particularly evident in traditional Chinese medicine, where insects are believed to exhibit faster therapeutic effects compared to alternative medications. According to reports, cockroaches are believed to possess cleansing capabilities and have the potential to function as diuretics. They also demonstrate efficacy in alleviating symptoms associated with sore throat, tonsillitis, liver cirrhosis, and fluid retention (Akullo et al., 2018; Boate and Suotonye, 2020). Fresh adults of Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758 are often used for traditional Chinese medicine with a salty and acrid taste that have the potential to enhance blood flow, alleviate blood blockages, support digestion, and facilitate detoxification (Luo et al., 2012). Current pharmacological investigations unveiled that Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758 has anti-tumor properties, boosts immune system, facilitates tissue regeneration, enhances microcirculation, and functions as anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral agent, and it also exhibits antioxidant properties shown by its ability to neutralise 2,2-diphenylpicrylhydrazyl and OH free radicals (Luo et al., 2012; Zhao et al., 2017).
Medicinal uses of edible cockroaches. Created with BioRender.com.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Available research papers also indicate the presence of potent antibacterial peptides from protein cockroaches (Liang et al., 2022; Siddiqui et al., 2023). They are known to play a crucial function in various biological processes and physiological activities. Polysaccharides exhibit intricate and diverse structures and possess a wide range of physiological effects. These capabilities, including anticancer and immunological control, have garnered significant interest in the domains of therapeutic chemistry and pharmaceutics. Animal polysaccharides encompass a variety of compounds, notably chitin, chitosan, and glycogen, as well as polysaccharide complexes including proteoglycans and lipopolysaccharides. Cockroaches has been shown to contain a significant quantity of glucosamine compounds. The predominant polysaccharides found in medicinal cockroaches that exhibit medicinal properties are β-(1-3)-D-glucans. These glucans include β-(1-6) residual glucose side chains, and the presence of β-(1-6) glycosidic linkages on the glucose backbone is crucial for their anticancer activity (Zhao et al., 2017). The concentration of chitin in dried shells of cockroaches has been identified as the sixth significant component. The residual shells obtained post-extraction can also serve as a valuable source for the production of chitin, chitosan, and its derivatives (Liang et al., 2022). Therefore, it is highly advantageous to explore and implement a holistic approach for utilizing this insect to its fullest potential (Figure 10).
Anti-tumor effects of edible cockroaches
A growing body of research has demonstrated the anti-tumor properties of the Blattidae family on several types of cancer cells. Research has shown that certain traditional Chinese medicine can hinder the proliferation of tumor cells in vitro and in vivo. It possesses the ability to impede the production of RNA, DNA, and proteins, as well as hinder the metabolism of energy of tumor cells, rendering it applicable across all stages of carcinogenesis. A study showed that CII-3 derived from Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758 induced cell death in two distinct human lung cancer cell lines (Hu et al., 2011; Luo et al., 2012). The anti-tumor action of the family Blattidae extract mostly manifests through five mechanisms, including cell cycle arrest, activation of apoptosis, antiangiogenic impact, improvement of the immune system, and reversal of treatment resistance.
Cell cycle is a complicated procedure that encompasses various elements, including cyclins, cyclin-dependent protein kinases, and inhibitors of cell cycle-dependent protein kinases. Irregular levels of cyclin and cylin-dependent protein kinases, along with the depletion of cyclin-dependent protein kinases inhibitor can lead to unregulated cell multiplication and the development of tumors. Studies have indicated that Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758 extract can inhibit the progression of endometrial cancer cells lacking progesterone receptors by disrupting the cell cycle through the increased expression of p53 and reduced expression of C-erbB-2. Another researches also shown that Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758 extract can arrest the cell cycle of human lung cancer cells H125 in the S phase, human gastric cancer BGC-823 at G2/M phase, halted the proliferation of Lewis lung carcinoma (3LL) cells in mice and cause cell cycle arrest in G0/G1 phase (Luo et al., 2012; Jing, 2014; Zhang et al., 2015).
Apoptosis is a programmed cell death mechanism that holds significant importance for cancer progression and therapies. There are multiple genes involved in this program such as pro-apoptotic proteins Fas, Bax, p53, and anti-apoptopic proteins Bcl-2, cmyc. An extract from Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758 hindered the growth of human liver cancer cells by triggering apoptosis and lowering the mitochondrial membrane potential. This extract also increased the expression of Bax, Caspase-9, and Caspase-3 while reducing the expression of Bcl-2 (Wang and Xin, 2012). In Lewis lung carcinoma (3LL), Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758 extract successfully prompted an apoptosis by enhancing the expression of the Fas, Fas receptor (FasR), and p53 genes, while also decreasing the expression of Bcl-2. Another study revealed that the same mechanism happened in human hepatocellular carcinoma SMMC-7221 cells through the mitochondrial pathway (Dong et al., 2012; Luo et al., 2012).
Angiogenesis is crucial in the process of tumor formation (tumorigenesis). The biggest contributor of angiogenesis, vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGF), stimulates the growth and movement of endothelial cells while enhancing the vascular permeability (Luo et al., 2012). The polypeptides of Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758 notably impeded tumor growth, lowered the density of blood vessels within the tumor (MVD), and decreased the expression of VEGF (Liang et al., 2016). Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758 extract also found to suppressed the growth of H22 tumor and decrease VEGF levels in mice (Chen et al., 2012).
A failure on immune system can contributes into the spread of tumors, therefore, enhancing the body’s immunity can result in an anti-tumor effect. Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), primarily released by monocytes and macrophages, is a versatile cytokine that plays a pivotal role in processes such as apoptosis, cell viability, and immune responses. Polypeptide extracts from Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758 demonstrated significant inhibitory effects on mice with S180 and H22 tumors. These extracts boosted the spleen and thymus indices in tumor-bearing mice, stimulated T lymphocyte proliferation, improved macrophage phagocytic function, and increased the levels of IL-2, IL-6, IL-12, and TNF-α (Zhang et al., 2015). Another studies showed that Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758 extract significantly restrained tumor growth in S180 tumor-bearing mice while avoiding harm to their immune organs and elevating CD4/CD8 ratio of peripheral blood in low immunity mice (Luo et al., 2012).
Resistance to drugs in cancer therapy is a complicated process that encompasses various factors and has emerged as a significant barrier to cancer treatment. Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758 extract efficiently overcame drug resistance in human hepatoma cells by specifically addressing multidrug resistance protein (MRP), breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP), and P-glycoprotein (P-gp). It also can suppress the growth of HepG2/ADM cells that was known to have a biological characteristics of multi-drug resistance. (Liu et al., 2015; Qiao et al., 2015). Figure 11 illustrated the anti-tumor effect mechanism from P. americana Linnaeus, 1758 extract.
Diagraphic illustration of anti-tumor effect mechanism from P. americana extract including cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, angiogenesis, immune system improvement and reversal of treatment resistance. Modification based on (Zhao et al., 2017) work. Created with BioRender.com.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Antimicrobial effects of edible cockroaches
Cockroaches evolved to safeguard themselves from exposure to pollutants and microbial infections in response to external stimuli because they live in an unsanitary and unclean surroundings (Akbar et al., 2019). Cockroaches may have a defence mechanisms towards invading pathogens that comes from lectin proteins. This protein have the ability to recognise harmful bacteria and trigger the innate immune response against pathogens. Currently, there are 50 antimicrobial compounds in medical use that have been sourced from insects (Latifi et al., 2015). Cockroaches have been noted to exhibit antimicrobial effects against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria as well as anti-amoebic effects, methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA), M. luteus, and Bacillus subtilis. Another study revealed that cockroaches also have antimicrobial effects against Salmonella enterica, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Streptococcus mutans, and Candida albicans in which all are recognised as drug resistant pathogens (Alkhalifah, 2021; Akbar et al., 2018; Basseri et al., 2016; Billah et al., 2015; Mahboub et al. 2021), as shown in Figure 12. These investigations and their findings suggest that metabolites produced by gut bacteria in cockroaches could potentially be harnessed to create potent antibiotics or probiotics for use in treating or preventing drug-resistant pathogens.
Not only the gut bacteria of cockroaches, some study find that brain extracts from cockroaches, along with their hemolymph, have shown notable bactericidal effects against certain pathogenic bacteria. The extracted hemolymph exhibited a 35% antibacterial effect against MRSA and 20% against E. Coli K1, whereas the brain lysates displayed a substantial 90% antibacterial effect when evaluated against both MRSA and E. Coli K1. Hemolymph of cockroaches has also displayed strong antiviral and antitumor properties, as well as antimicrobial effects against parasitic worm embryos. It has been beneficial in managing various conditions and diseases, including diabetes (Ali et al., 2017; Siddiqui et al., 2023). Another microbial properties can also be found from chitosan, a polysaccharide and an antimicrobial substance discovered in the exoskeleton of cockroaches (Mahboub et al. 2021).
Antimicrobial effects found in edible cockroaches. Created with BioRender.com.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Safety concerns and consumer acceptance of edible cockroaches as human food
Risks associated with consuming cockroaches
Illustration of allergic reactions from cockroach-derived enzyme that can lead into lung inflammation and asthma. Created with BioRender.com.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Cockroaches exhibit a strong association with human populations and are frequently found inhabiting areas characterised by inadequate sanitation conditions. These pests have the potential to impact human health through various mechanisms, including the contamination of food via their excrement, the mechanical spread of infections, and the provocation of allergic reactions. The possibility of cockroaches serving as mechanical vectors for infections has been suggested based on the identification of a minimum of 32 bacterial species belonging to 16 families, 17 fungal species, and three protozoan species in cockroaches found in both indoor and outdoor settings (Kramer et al., 2009). Furthermore, laboratory experiments have indicated that the Australian cockroach has the ability to transmit Salmonella, a pathogen responsible for causing food poisoning, namely the Salmonella kottbus serotype (Mackerras et al., 1948). Nevertheless, there is currently no evidence to support the assertion that the Australian cockroach is responsible for any instances of food contamination outbreaks. It is imperative to acknowledge that despite the identification of numerous diseases from cockroaches, there is a lack of conclusive evidence supporting the role of cockroaches as efficient carriers of these pathogenic microorganisms.
Cockroaches are associated with various human health risks, one of which is the development of allergies. These allergies can be triggered by the inhalation, ingestion, cutaneous abrasion, or injection of allergens produced by cockroaches. Research has provided evidence indicating that approximately 50% of individuals diagnosed with asthma have allergic reactions to cockroaches. The symptoms associated with allergies triggered by cockroaches include sneezing, skin responses, and eye irritation (Wirtz, 1980). Particularly severe allergic reactions may manifest as respiratory distress or anaphylactic shock, characterised by symptoms such as pruritic rash, edema of the pharynx, and hypotension, posing a significant risk to an individual’s life (Brenner et al., 1991).
The process of becoming allergic to cockroach allergens involves cockroach-derived enzymes disrupting the protective barrier of airway epithelial cells. This allows more cockroach allergens to enter and trigger an immune response in cells like dendritic cells through interactions with Toll-like receptors (TLRs) or C-type lectin receptors. Once activated, dendritic cells (DCs) can instruct cells within the adaptive immune system to enhance the development of a Th2 cell response, consequently elevating the likelihood of sensitization. On the contrary, genetic elements, specifically variations in TLRs, CLRs, CD14, whether individually or in conjunction with cockroach exposure, contribute to an individual’s susceptibility to an elevated likelihood of becoming sensitised to cockroach allergens, resulting in subsequent lung inflammation and asthma (Gao, 2012). Figure 13 shown the mechanism of allergic reactions from cockroach-derived enzyme.
Safety measures to reduce risks
Historically, cockroach populations have been managed by the utilization of various hazardous chemicals, which are typically administered as residual insecticides in locations where cockroaches tend to reside or frequently visit. The majority of substances has neurotoxic properties, which result in the disruption of the nervous system and subsequent impairment of locomotory and respiratory functions. The aforementioned categories encompass organophosphates, carbamates, botanical agents like pyrethrins, and pyrethroids. Formulations range from dust and baits to wettable powders and emulsifiable concentrates to aerosols for use in cracks and crevices. Currently, there are several more materials being utilised that possess distinct ways of action. Upon ingestion, the administration of boric acid in the form of a finely powdered substance or a diluted solution has been shown to inflict harm upon the intestinal lining of cockroaches. This subsequently leads to their demise by disrupting the process of nutrient absorption. The absorptive nature of inorganic silica dust leads to a reduction in cuticular lipids and subsequent desiccation. The metabolic inhibitors like hydramethylnon and sulfurated are used to prevent the body from converting food into energy (Brenner and Kramer, 2019).
Regulatory aspects of cockroach consumption
The establishment of standardised practices for the breeding of edible insects should be prioritised. The implementation of stringent management practices is necessary. In order to mitigate the potential disruption caused by insects escaping from farms and industries, it is advisable to implement measures such as sealing or filtering the raising locations. This approach not only serves to minimise disturbances to the general population, but also helps to preserve the integrity of ecosystems. The formalization of the process pertaining to the quality of insect-derived goods is imperative due to the significant influence of dietary and environmental factors on the composition of insects (Van Huis et al., 2013; Tang et al., 2019).
The Codex Alimentarius standard pertaining to the utilization of insects as ingredients in food and feed holds significant importance as a global benchmark. It has the potential to provide guidance for domestic regulations concerning the production and consumption of insects as food and feed, with a particular focus on ensuring safety and maintaining high quality standards. Although the Codex Alimentarius does not provide explicit regulations pertaining to the utilization of fresh or processed insects as food and feed, the term “insects” is encompassed under the Codex Alimentarius criteria under the category of “impurities”. Wheat flour, for instance, must not contain any of the following, as specified by Codex Standard 152-1985, such as aberrant flavors, odors, and living insects; and dirt (animal origin impurities, including dead insects) in levels that may pose a health concern to humans. The Codex Alimentarius Commission was created in 1963 by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO). Its primary goals are to safeguard consumer health and promote equitable trading practices within the food industry. The user’s text is already academic and does not require any rewriting (FAO, 2021).
Consumption of edible cockroaches
Consumption of edible cockroaches as food
Cockroaches are consumed in their adult stage. However, they are safe to eat and may be used for food purposes only when they are artificially reared in a clean environment, suitable enclosure of temperature and humidity, and fed with a balanced diet that meets their nutritional need (Hartmann et al., 2015; Kulma et al., 2020). Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758, also known as American cockroach, is the most common edible cockroach recognised for its substantial nutritional content and is easy to rear (Zeng et al., 2019).
Traditional dishes that use cockroaches as an ingredient
There is limited documentation regarding the prevalence of insect consumption worldwide, especially for cockroaches. Several sources have mentioned that the majority can be found in Asia, Africa, and Central or South America (Guiné et al., 2021; Liceaga et al., 2022; Raheem et al., 2019) with the most consumed edible cockroaches are Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758, Periplaneta australasiae Fabricius, 1775, Blaptica dubia De Geer, 1752, and Blatta orientalis Linnaeus, 1758 just as stated on Table 12.
Traditional dishes using cockroaches as main ingredients
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Modern culinary applications
Cockroach flour is highly nutritious in protein content. A wheat bread made from a flour that enriched from a cinereous cockroach (Nauphoeta cinerea Olivier, 1789) presented the best nutritional characteristics compared to white bread and whole wheat bread without any alterations in sensory quality. An addition of 10% cockroach flour to the white bread recipe significantly boosted 133% of the protein content (rising from 9.7% to 22.7%). Moreover, the use of cockroach flour led to a substantial reduction of 64.53% in fat content compared to the white bread formulation (de Oliveira et al., 2017). Another research also found that cockroach milk has potential as a superfood. Milk obtained from the species Diploptera punctata Eschscholtz, 1822 possesses more excellent nutritional benefits than standard mammalian milk. This species produces a substance containing protein crystals that nourish its younger forms. This unique type of milk is abundant in essential nutrients, including N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, β-D-mannose, glycerol, oleic acid, conjugated linoleic acid, omega-3 fatty acids, short-chain and medium-chain fatty acids, as well as various vitamins and mineral (Banerjee et al., 2016; Niaz et al., 2018).
Preparation and processing of edible cockroaches as human food
The process of preparation and preparing cockroaches is similar with another insect. It starts with collecting raw cockroaches after harvesting and concludes with producing food items and various types of waste. Cleaning, heating, and drying insects are the elemental operations (Nyangena et al., 2020). During the cleaning process, insects are commonly subjected to multiple rounds of sifting or rinsing in cool or lukewarm water to remove frass and other related substances. Eliminating the digestive system might be required because it can serve as a source of bacteria and potential pathogens, posing a potential threat of carrying harmful microorganisms (Hall and Liceaga, 2021; Liceaga et al., 2022; Sogari et al., 2019; Van Huis, 2013).
Steaming, boiling, blanching, roasting, frying (pan and deep), stewing, smoking or the combination of one or two techniques are another popular methods that involve heat processing (Liceaga et al., 2022). Drying (roasting, frying, sun-drying, and freeze-drying) can help to lower the water content and extend a product’s life during distribution and storage. This method is mainly used for dry products such as insect powders and flours (Liceaga et al., 2022; Nyangena et al., 2020). The interactions between chitin and protein can influence the techno-functional properties, such as emulsification, foaming, and solubility, leading to the imposition of limitations on the usability of the flours. Therefore, other approaches are needed, including enzymatic proteolysis, heat treatments, solvent extractions, or alkali/acidic extractions (Liceaga, 2021; Mishyna et al., 2021). Freeze-drying has gain attention because of its utilization of low temperatures and the subsequent sublimation of water. This process can help to minimally alters lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, proteins and sensory proteins such as aroma, color, and flavor (Baiano, 2020; Liceaga, 2022; Liceaga et al., 2022).
The process of making protein hydrolysates using whole insect or insect flour as the materials, modification from (Liceaga, 2021). Created with BioRender.com.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Through the application of those techniques, the utilization of cokcroaches can expand beyond proteins, encompassing a wide range of insect-based food ingredients like lipids, fiber and other elements such as polyphenols. Bioactive compounds such as phenolic, peptides, and chitin can be liberated through ultrasonication, microwave extraction, and proteolysis. These compounds can offer benefits for human health by aiding in preventing or managing diseases such as hypertension, inflammation, and type-II diabetes (Guiné et al., 2021; House, 2019; Liceaga, 2022). The ethanol extract from Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758 is a main ingredient for Chinese traditional medicines, Kangfuxin. It is also effective to treat burns, injuries, and sores (Zhu et al., 2018).
The extraction of insect oil is vital to achieve a substantial output of premium-grade oil suitable for both food and feed applications, as well as to facilitate the subsequent isolation of proteins. Methanol and ethanol are commonly used for insect lipid extraction because they are eco-friendly and suitable for food use (Pan et al., 2022). The volatile compounds in insect oils can contribute to their flavor. The Dubia cockroach oil from aqueous oil extraction contains compounds with unpleasant aromas related to several volatile acids, making it inappropriate and unsuitable for table oils and food ingredients. The aroma profile from the oil can be connected to its extraction process (Tzompa-Sosa et al., 2019). Therefore, additional investigation is required to develop the extraction procedure of dubia cockroach oil so it can be edible and also suitable for another cockroach species, such as Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758, Periplaneta australasiae Fabricius, 1775, and Blattella germanica Linnaeus, 1758, which also have potential. Figure 14 shows the making process of protein hydrosylates and the effect of different processing technique can be seen on Supplementary Table S1.
Consumption of edible cockroaches as feed
Insects serve as a valuable protein source and cockroaches show promise as an insect suitable for animal feed. In Europe, exotic pet enthusiasts used Blaptica dubia De Geer, 1752 as feed because they are slow-moving insects that cannot climb smooth surfaces and are quieter than crickets. Blaberus craniifer Burmeister, 1838 are popular feed for pet lizards and tarantulas, making them available online in United Kingdom and United States of America. The adult stage of this species contains 66,6% crude protein which makes them a valuable and nutritious feed for animals. Gromphadorhina portentosa Schaum, 1853 are primarily used as live feed for pet lizards, although occasionally this species is raised as pets in its own right. Blaptica dubia De Geer, 1752 also famous in North America as live feed. Blaptica dubia De Geer, 1752 is gaining popularity in Western countries as feeder insects for reptiles and amphibians, and they are even being considered as valuable additives for broiler chicken feeds. Blaberus discoidalis Serville, 1838 often found in Central America up to the State of Florida in the USA. They are frequently featured on websites originating from the State of Florida as a substitute for Blaptica dubia De Geer, 1752, which cannot be traded in this state. In South America, Nauphoeta cinerea Olivier, 1789 often used as live feed for pet lizards. They are favored for their ease of maintenance, fast reproduction, and minimal care requirements to sustain their culture. Another species that commonly used as feed is Oxyhaloa deusta Thunberg, 1784 or the red head cockroach. This species is commonly bred to feed small pet reptiles because of its petite size and delicate exoskeleton (Lourenço et al., 2022; Sule et al, 2020). In Asia, with the rising popularity of exotic pets such as lizards and the increasing demand for insect-based meals in livestock feed formulations, cockroach production in Asia has seen significant growth especially for species like Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758 and Blatta orientalis Linnaeus, 1758 (Raheem et al., 2019). Table 13 explain the distribution of cockroaches’ species that are often used as exotic pet’s food.
Cockroaches consumption as feed distribution
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Environmental benefits of consuming edible cockroaches
Satisfying the needs of a burgeoning global population, which includes an increase in discerning consumers, will unavoidably demand a surge in food production. However, this will inevitably strain scarce resources like land, oceans, fertilisers, water, and energy. If agricultural practices remain unchanged, the escalation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, deforestation, and environmental deterioration will persist. The environmental impacts of livestock production, primarily driven by global feed production, are significant. This includes up to 71% for eutrophication and 85% for climate change induced by pig production, 78.8% of environmental impact for poultry production, and up to 99% of marine eutrophication for farmed fish. With a growing population and the current environmental challenges posed by feed production and utilization, there is a clear necessity for alternative protein sources for both animal feeds and human food. The livestock rearing contributes 14% of GHG emissions and demands significant land utilization. On the other hand, cockroaches require fewer resources, less land, water, and human labor to produce compare to another common livestock such as beef, pigs, and chicken. They also exhibit efficient food conversion rates, require significantly less water compared to livestock or agricultural crops, and offer high protein content, varying depending on the species and life stage (Lourenço et al., 2022). For one kilogram of protein, they only need about 10% of land and have an additional benefit for vertical farming (Baiano, 2020; Van Huis, 2016). As an example, the most consumed species of cockroaches, Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758, can grow under extreme conditions with low oxygen and no lighting but still serves a high nutrition value that can be reared as a healthy food for both humans and feed livestock (Boate and Suotonye, 2020). It is also shown that Blaptica dubia De Geer, 1752 produced a lower amount of both GHG and CO2 per kilogram of meat obtained, compared with pigs (Mlcek et al., 2021). Urgent attention is required to address these environmental concerns, particularly those linked to livestock rearing (Van Huis, 2016). Embracing insect consumption offers several advantages as (Belluco et al., 2013; Feng et al., 2018; Halloran et al., 2018) such as:
- ∙ Insects display remarkable feed-conversion efficiency, efficiently transforming feed mass into higher body mass, reflected in a low feed-to-weight gain ratio expressed as kilograms of feed per kilogram of weight gain.
- ∙ They can be cultivated using organic byproducts, diminishing environmental pollution and turning waste into a valuable resource.
- ∙ Insects have relatively low greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and emit minimal ammonia.
- ∙ Their water requirements are significantly lower compared to cattle rearing.
- ∙ Insects generally have minimal animal welfare concerns, although their capacity to experience pain is not fully understood.
- ∙ The risk of transmitting zoonotic infections through insect consumption is relatively low.
Cockroaches are natural decomposer that eat dead and decaying matter. They have the ability to decompose cellulose found in wood, enhance soil quality through their burrowing activities, and serve as a food source for various animals. Additionally, certain cockroach species play a role in pollination within tropical regions. Cockroaches contribute significantly to nutrient cycling, serving as a primary nitrogen source crucial for tree growth and overall forest well-being. Utilizing edible cockroaches in human diets may offer a more sustainable and eco-friendly method of protein production compared to conventional livestock (Adedara et al., 2022). Despite the benefits mentioned, the barrier towards insect consumption is still the customer’s acceptance. Cockroaches optimise resource consumption, such as food and water, to minimise waste and environmental impact. Cockroaches can be fed with organic waste or agricultural byproducts, reducing the need for additional resources – this approach involves deploying efficient pest management tactics to avert infestations and decrease reliance on pesticides. Methods for managing pests holistically, like utilizing biological standards or habitat manipulation, can help maintain a healthy and balanced cockroach population (Murefu et al., 2019; Raheem et al., 2019).
Cultural attitudes towards edible cockroaches
Attitudes towards eating edible cockroaches differ significantly among various societies and regions. While certain cultures have embraced the long-standing practice of consuming insects, including cockroaches, others strongly reject the idea and find them disgusting (Sidali et al., 2019). Although cockroaches are nutritious, they can elicit adverse reactions and disgust. There have been noticeable shifts in recent times about people perspective on products derived from insects specifically the sensory aspects. It is important to keep an eye on the sensory characteristics to minimise rejection and make them appealing to consumers (Guiné et al., 2021; Kröger et al., 2022; Kulma et al., 2023).
Attitudes in different regions of the world
For some people, eating cockroaches as a new alternative food can evoke anxiety and insecurity due to their unfamiliarity, lack of research, and unknown nature. When eating it, consumers may feel a mixture of curiosity and anxiety (Tuccillo et al., 2020). The unfamiliar and sometimes unappealing outer appearance of insects can hinder the development of trust in consuming them as food. Additionally, conflicting attitudes arise from the knowledge of cockroaches nutritional value, contrasting with pre-existing beliefs and perceptions about such unconventional food choices (Kulma et al., 2023). Table 14 shows the attitude towards edible cockroach consumption may be different for each region.
Attitude towards edible cockroaches in different regions
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Role of cultural factors in cockroach consumption
Cultural elements significantly affect how people perceive and approach the idea of consuming cockroaches (Hartmann et al., 2015). These traditions play a role in shaping the acceptance and normalization of consuming cockroaches in those cultures (Ochieng et al., 2023). In societies where insects are widely recognised as a viable food option, the notion of consuming cockroaches could be more readily embraced. But for those who don’t, there can be significant aversions and cultural taboos against consuming cockroaches (Jensen and Lieberoth, 2019; Kröger et al., 2022). Cultural perceptions regarding the visual attractiveness, fragrance, and consistency of food can influence whether cockroaches are embraced or dismissed as a viable food option. In certain cultures, the appearance of cockroaches may be deemed unappealing, resulting in a negative perception of their edibility (Jauniskis and Michopoulou, 2020; Kröger et al., 2022).
Social influence can also have an impact on the consumption of cockroaches. As cockroach is a part of insect, earlier studies have showed that individuals are more inclined to eat insects when they observe others engaging in such behavior within large groups. This suggests that social influence, whether through direct observation or awareness of others’ behavior, can significantly promote insect consumption (Bisconsin-Júnior et al., 2022). Food security can also affect some regions to start consuming insects daily. Countries with food insecurity believe that adopting insect consumption can solve food security problems because insects are nutritious.
Insects are readily available and can contribute to enhancing food security. Insects can improve the overall food situation for those facing food insecurity (Abril et al., 2022; Gahukar, 2016; Ochieng et al., 2023). Increased exposure to diverse cultures, cuisines, and the impact of media and travel, can result in the adoption of novel culinary practices and a more receptive outlook on consuming insects, including cockroaches (Baiano, 2020).
Harvesting and rearing of edible cockroaches
In various areas, insects are recognised as a legitimate food source and have been traditionally consumed throughout history (Kim et al., 2019), and cockroaches are no exception. Cockroach consumption was widespread in South America and the Far East, with a notable focus on China, but it has now expanded to South Korea and Eastern Africa as well (Hlongwane et al., 2020). Cockroaches are long use as a traditional medicine in China. Not only as food consumption, cockroaches are nutritiousas feed for animals, mainly for reptiles, amphibies, exotic pet’s food and poultry. To ensure a sufficient supply of cockroaches for daily consumption, methods such as traditional rearing systems, semi-natural rearing systems, and mass-rearing systems are available for collecting and harvesting. These approaches can gather a suitable quantity of cockroaches for consumption.
Traditional ways of collecting and harvesting edible insects in the wild
Edible insects are collected from their natural habitats (Melgar-Lalanne et al., 2019; Van Huis, 2013). Around 92% of the edible insect species that are consumed are directly obtained from their natural habitats through harvesting, while 6% are partially domesticated. Only a small percentage, approximately 2%, are specifically bred and raised in controlled indoor farming settings (Piña-Domı́nguez et al., 2022).
For centuries, harvesting insects has been practiced in Mexico, prior to the Spanish arrival (pre-Hispanic eras), insects were already considered as a valuable food source (Hawkey et al., 2021). The method of harvesting varies for each insect species. It is influenced by the growth phase (eggs, pupae, larvae, or adults), the season (rainy or dry), and the geographical setting (forest, desert, or agricultural fields). These factors are essential to determine the appropriate techniques and timing for harvesting each species (Melgar-Lalanne et al., 2019). Cockroaches are well-suited for farming, whether it’s on a small scale at home or a larger industrial scale (Baiano, 2020). Cockroaches’ breed in hot and humid places along with the presence of food and water (Ali et al., 2018). Traditionally, cockroaches are collected using jar traps or sticky traps with baits that can be positioned in a place with easy access to food, moisture, and harborage (Gondhalekar et al., 2021, Solomon et al., 2016). Cockroach baits typically contain food ingredients attractive to cockroaches, such as carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. Common carbohydrate-based food types used in cockroach baits include sugars, such as glucose, fructose, or sucrose, and starches, like cornstarch or flour (Tee and Lee, 2017).
Based on a trapping experiment, it was consistently observed that German cockroaches (Blattella germanica Linnaeus, 1758) and brown-banded cockroaches (Supella longipalpa Fabricius, 1798), in both their adult and nymph stages, were attracted to Avert powder (containing abamectin), Maxforce station and gel, and Siege gel (both containing hydramethylnon). On the other hand, American cockroaches (Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758) displayed a higher level of attraction towards fipronil than the Combat bait matrix (Ademolu et al., 2020). As cockroaches are easy to maintain and can live anywhere as long as they have food and a proper ambiance for reproduction, we need to be aware because most of the time, humid and dark places are dirty. Eating edible cockroaches carries the potential danger of bacterial infection, as these insects can spread potentially harmful bacteria through feces and other deposits, especially from the Enterobacteriaceae family. Additionally, certain bacterial strains found in cockroaches exhibit resistance to antibiotics. Furthermore, cockroaches can host harmful microorganisms such as Escherichia coli, Streptococcus group D, Bacillus spp., Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Proteus vulgaris (Gałęcki and Sokół, 2019; Guzman and Vilcinskas, 2020). It would be a better idea to harvest them from a clean but suitable environment for cockroaches (Maciel-Vergara and Ros, 2017). Using organic waste materials as their food source can also be a way to harvest cockroaches traditionally. This typically involves placing kitchen scraps, vegetable peels, or spoiled fruits into the rearing containers. The cockroaches then consume the decomposing organic matter, effectively participating in waste recycling. However, it is necessary to study the microbiology of the waste and the insects that feed on it (Yiu and Ming, 2020).
Semi-natural rearing/artificial rearing system
Cockroaches possess the capacity to be cultivated as a nourishing food option for humans and as a viable livestock feed. Semi-natural rearing systems are used to captive breeding endeavors and create an environment that suits the organisms while enabling management and control. By implementing such strategies, stress can be minimised, natural behaviors encouraged, and the overall health and well-being of the organisms improved. In semi-natural rearing, cockroaches are raised in an environment that resembles their natural habitat. The rearing containers or enclosures typically incorporate realistic elements such as soil, plants, or other materials that mimic their native surroundings. This approach aims to provide a more natural and diverse environment for cockroaches. Periplaneta americana Linnaeus, 1758 typically live in challenging environments characterised by low oxygen levels, inadequate lighting, and crowded living conditions, and possess substantial nutritional benefits (Boate and Suotonye, 2020; Sule et al., 2020).
Dubia roaches (Blaptica dubia De Geer, 1752) are known for being easy to rear. They thrive in environments with high temperatures and humidity, which promotes their rapid and efficient development. Gromphadorhina portentosa Schaum, 1853, known as the Madagascar hissing cockroach, consume decaying organic matter in their natural environment, but they also eat fresh fruits and vegetables. Maintaining an average temperature of 26 °C for their rearing is recommended. Deviations from this temperature range, either higher or lower, can result in reduced production, as observed in other species of cockroaches (Lourenço et al., 2022).
A study in Kenya used German cockroaches that were captured within an abandoned building. They made a trap from plastic stacked with carton egg trays to capture the cockroaches. The rearing room had the floor covered with wood shavings, cream-painted walls to minimise light reflection, and it was effectively sealed to ensure proper ventilation while preventing unwanted airflow (Ngaira et al., 2022). Meanwhile, simple cockroach farming in China has been rearing in a manipulated environment, similar to the natural habitat. Modification can be done if needed. Cockroaches live in containers made from plastic, glass jars, wooden boxes, or buckets and filled with a substrate like soil, leaves litter, coconut fiber, or a mixture of them (Boate and Suotonye, 2020; Melgar-Lalanne et al., 2019). Figure 15 shows that cockroaches habitat can be manipulated.
Illustration of observable rearing system of colony Salganea Taiwanensis with the powdered cellulose (the brown part) and an artificial fungal meal that was crushed and spread on top. Based on the work of (Osaki, 2022). Figure created with BioRender.com.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Mass rearing
Establishing protocols for the extensive cultivation of insects on a large scale is essential. This poses a challenge for industries dedicated to the widespread breeding of insects for purposes such as biocontrol, the sterile insect technique, and pet feed. The primary concerns in large-scale rearing include ensuring high quality, dependability, and cost-effectiveness. It is crucial that insects can be a viable choice for protein sources when they are intended as human food or animal feed. The primary objective of mass rearing is to optimise production processes and lower expenses. This is achieved by implementing strategies that improve space utilization, feeding techniques, and automation, all aimed at maximizing output while minimizing the utilization of resources (Szelei et al., 2011; Van Huis, 2013).
In a previous study, it was found that German cockroaches tend to consume potatoes and bananas over pork and cheese. The room was fully sealed with wood shavings covered the floor or rearing room. The cockroach population was separated into three distinct groups, each comprising around sixty individuals. These groups were placed in a makeshift rearing container for further observation and care. The result implied providing a suitable diet for Blattella germanica Linnaeus, 1758. It would be better if it consisted primarily of carbohydrates rich in fructose and glucose and a significant quantity of high-quality nutrients. Furthermore, it has been suggested that combining multiple organic substrates (a composite of 40% spent brewers waste, 40% wheat pollard, and 20% Caridina nilotica) leads to improved cockroach survival and performance. Earlier studies have shown that the presence of food and water greatly influences the survival and growth of cockroaches. It was observed that the growth, molting phase, longevity, and reproduction of Blattella germanica Linnaeus, 1758 was visible in female cockroaches than males (Ngaira et al., 2022).
Cockroach feeding behaviors were influenced by sex, age, and reproductive state. Female Blattella germanica Linnaeus, 1758 displayed distinct feeding patterns compared to nymphs and adult males. When food and water sources were located further away from their shelter, there was an increase in feeding and drinking episodes, which were more frequent and prolonged at higher population densities of German cockroaches. Male cockroaches were generally more active and exhibited more significant exploration tendencies than females. Feeding and drinking activity peaked during egg maturation and abruptly declined upon the appearance of egg capsules. While the water was crucial for German cockroaches, it was found that they had a more remarkable ability to survive for extended periods without food, especially females who could stay for up to 45 days with access to water but no food. In contrast, male Blattella germanica Linnaeus, 1758 could not last beyond approximately 9-10 days (Ademolu et al., 2020).
Parameters such as temperature, humidity, lighting, and feeding schedules are carefully managed to ensure rapid growth, high reproduction rates, and consistent quality and quantity of cockroaches. The geographical distribution and local occurrence of insects are significantly influenced by temperature, a crucial environmental factor. Critical thermal temperatures (CT) serve as indicators of sensitivity, linking behavioral reactions (such as temporary immobilization or confusion) with rapidly shifting temperature circumstances. In the case of cockroaches, CTMax has been associated with the temperatures found in their natural habitats.
Based on the research conducted by (Wu et al., 2017) the indoor pest species, Blattella germanica Linnaeus, 1758, has a lower development threshold of 16.2 °C and a thermal constant of 93.3 degree days similar with the Periplaneta australasiae Fabricius, 1775 in 17.1 °C, with a thermal constant of 147.1 degree-days. In comparison, Blaptica dubia De Geer, 1752 is lower, measuring 7.02 °C, less than half of Blattella germanica Linnaeus, 1758’s entry, and 10 °C lower than that of Periplaneta australasiae Fabricius, 1775. Due to its significantly larger size, Dubia cockcroach requires much more degree days for development. Both species demonstrate their highest rate of growth at 30 °C. It would be effective to achieve maximum development if these insects were employed for extensive-scale food production for human consumption or as animal feed (Wu et al., 2017). Rearing insects for use as livestock feed or as food for exotic pets is best conducted in indoor environments. This not only ensures optimal productivity but also minimizes the risk of animals escaping and prevents the local environment from being exposed to pests and diseases. Although rare, escapes can still happen, especially in small-scale farms producing insects as live feed for exotic pets (Lourenço et al., 2022). Supplementary Table S2 shows various factors influencing the rearing process of cockroaches.
The packaging process of edible insects. Created with BioRender.com.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2024; 10.1163/23524588-00001138
Packaging of edible cockroaches as human food
Packaging have an important role in preserving insects when they are stored. A limited article mentions specific packaging techniques for cockroach species, but an ideal way to store cockroach powder or flour would be at 25 °C and 35 °C. It was believed to keep the flavor even after six months. An increase in temperature may also affect the acidity of flour (Elhassan et al., 2019). Another way to ensure food safety from consuming edible insects is to pack the product in airtight containers or packaging to prevent moisture ingress, reduce exposure to oxygen, and minimise the risk of contamination. Vacuum sealing or using sealed bags with proper closures can effectively maintain product quality, especially sensory acceptability. It is also crucial to store them in dry environments and employ moisture-resistant packaging materials, thus preventing water absorption and stopping microbial activity. Including desiccants or moisture-absorbing packets in the packaging is recommended to ensure optimal moisture levels. Packaging materials with light-blocking properties, such as opaque or dark-colored containers, can help protect against light damage because UV lights and radiation can lead to nutrient degradation and changes in the color and flavor (Elhassan et al., 2019; Tran et al., 2015). The application of a combination between feed and thyme essential oil shows persistent insect-repellent effects for food packaging (Chung et al., 2013). However, further research regarding the impact of packaging methods on the shelf-life, specifically for edible cockroaches, is needed. Figure 16 shows the process of packaging edible insects product.
Future prospects for edible cockroaches
The prospects of edible cockroaches hold potential for various areas. Research and development in insect farming and processing methods could lead to advancements in mass production and improved acceptance of edible cockroaches as a viable food option (Abdullahi et al., 2021).
Potential as a sustainable protein source
In terms of protein quality, insect protein contains all the necessary amino acids and demonstrates favorable digestibility. Studies using rat models to determine protein digestibility based on actual fecal nitrogen levels have reported values ranging from 86% to 90% for insects (Finke, 2013; Gorbunova and Zakharov, 2021). It is essential to know that the protein composition of insects can differ based on variables such as species, developmental stage, dietary content, and methods of preparation or processing (Finke, 2013; Nyangena et al., 2020).
Edible cockroaches hold significant promise as a sustainable protein source. They can efficiently convert feed into protein, requiring fewer resources than conventional livestock, and their rapid growth and reproductive rates enable large-scale production (El Hajj et al., 2022; Kipkoech et al., 2023). Edible cockroaches can be cultivated using organic waste materials, leading to a reduced environmental footprint compared to conventional feed production methods. Incorporating edible cockroaches into diets can alleviate the burden on traditional protein sources, contributing to a more sustainable and diverse food system (Devi et al., 2023). The nutritional value of cockroaches can serve as both healthy food and feed materials.
Research on cockroach farming
In cockroach farming, particular species are chosen based on their fitness for the desired objectives. These species are selected based on factors such as their ability to reproduce, their rate of growth, and their nutritional profile (Gahukar, 2016). Farming entails creating suitable living conditions, maintaining optimal temperature and humidity levels, and providing cockroaches with a proper diet (Cheung and Moraes, 2016; Van Huis, 2016). Cockroach farming can be carried out on varying scales, ranging from small-scale operations to more significant commercial ventures. The scale of the farming operation depends on the specific objectives and requirements of the individuals or organizations involved (Abdullahi et al., 2021).
Market potential and challenges
Between 2018 and 2023, the market of edible insect is projected to experience substantial growth. The rising need for alternative sources of protein combined with an increase of recognition from sustainable advantages associated with edible insects, is pushing the expansion of this market. As more consumers embrace insect-based products and the industry continues to innovate, the edible insect market is highly anticipated in the coming years (Govorushko, 2019; Liceaga, 2021).
Cockroaches can be incorporated into protein bars, snacks, or powdered forms, offering a sustainable protein option for human consumption (Boate and Suotonye, 2020; Kipkoech et al., 2023). Cockroaches have a high nutritional value especially in protein and amino acids. Despite being well-nourished and have abundant proteins, minerals, lipids, and vitamins, cockroaches are disliked and hard to accept as regular human food because most people are averse to insects (Liceaga, 2022; Pal and Roy, 2014). Most cockroach species are deemed unsafe and unsuitable for human consumption because they can harbor harmful pathogens, bacteria, and parasites that pose health risks to humans if eaten. Furthermore, they may come into contact with pesticides or other pollutants in their surroundings, making them inappropriate for human consumption. Therefore, cockroaches can be integrated into different types of foods, but we need to be very careful and consider to do a background checking of chemical analysis of the ingredients, determine the inclusion levels of cockroaches, verify the quality of the products, know their safety, quantify its nutrients, investigate its shelf life, carry out sensory analysis, statistical tests as a list of necessary things to do for a food production (El Hajj et al., 2022; Nyangena et al., 2020).
4 Conclusions
While some individuals may find cockroaches repulsive, evidence suggests they could serve as a beneficial nutrient source and a sustainable alternative to protein. Various cultures worldwide already consume cockroaches as part of their diet due to their rich protein content, easy to rear and manageable. The process typically involves creating a suitable environment for the cockroaches to breed and grow, providing food and water, and managing their population. Besides, they are not only for human consumption but can be used as feed for livestock and pets. However, as noted in the previous lines, it is necessary to carry out various aspects of research, thinking about the safety of the manufactured products and the health of consumers, as well as the cultivation methods for the selected species and its processing. technological, that is, in its industrialization, as well as carrying out education campaigns so that this resource is accepted as a source of protein in the diet. The widespread adoption of edible cockroaches in our food habits will ultimately hinge on societal attitudes and consumer preferences. It may take quite a long time to adapt, but we should recognise their potential as a food source in our pursuit of a more sustainable food system.
Corresponding authors; e-mail: s.siddiqui@dil-ev.de; aristide.maggiolino@uniba.it
Supplementary material
Supplementary material is available online at: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.25722348
Author statement
Shahida Anusha Siddiqui – conceptualization, methodology, writing – original draft, writing – review and editing, validation, formal analysis, resources, visualization, data curation, project administration, investigation, supervision; Maria Carolina Ilona Hadus – writing – original draft; Aprilia Fitriani – writing – original draft; Vandana Guleria – formal analysis; Sandhanam Kuppusamy – formal analysis, investigation; Bedanta Bhattacharjee – formal analysis, investigation; Bara Yudhistira – review and editing; Aristide Maggiolino – funding acquisition, validation.
Conflicts of interest
The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.
Funding
This study was carried out within the Agritech National Research Center and received funding from the European Union Next-GenerationEU (Piano Nazionale di Ripresa e Resilienza (PNRR) – Missione 4 Componente 2, Investimento 1.4-D.D. 1032 17/06/2022, CN00000022).
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