Abstract
In Africa, food insecurity seems to be a continual problem as a result of various factors such as extreme poverty, water scarcity, land degradation, and climate change. As a result, chronic hunger and malnutrition are still prevalent in many African countries. Consequently, the utilization of available and affordable natural food sources is needed to accommodate the energy and nutritional requirements of the people, such as edible insects. Edible insects are abundant and locally available throughout Africa, hence could be utilized as low-cost, nutritious, and sustainable foods. Around 500 species have been recorded in sub-Saharan Africa out of the 2,100 known edible insect species worldwide. The consumption of insects, also known as entomophagy, has been historically practiced by indigenous people of Africa. To date, edible insects are seen in Africa as a good opportunity, particularly for rural households, to improve their livelihoods at an economic and nutritional level. Edible insects are a great source of energy and nutrients – and their rearing only requires a small amount of water, land and feeding resources. Entomophagy may also serve as an ecologically sound control measure for insect pests, such as locusts, that periodically wreak havoc on agricultural fields. The combination of being a highly nutritious food source and having economic advantages made edible insects very attractive in all the African regions. Their promotions into the diet would ameliorate the well-being of the population and boost economic growth in Africa. However, African countries need local and regional legal frameworks to achieve smooth functioning of marketing of edible insects and their products.
1 Introduction
The world’s population is rising, and it is expected to reach about 9 billion by the middle of this century (FAO, 2017). In Africa, the population is estimated to reach about 2.53 billion people by the year 2050 (Statista, 2023). As a consequence, the requirement for food, particularly animal-based protein sources, has increased due to globalization, urbanization, and population growth (Babarinde et al., 2021; Bodirsky et al., 2015; Ismail et al., 2020; Varela-Ortega et al., 2022). Specifically, interest in insects and insect-derived products used as food in Africa has increased in recent years and is advocated as a viable long-term replacement for traditional animal and other protein sources (Kouřimská and Adámková, 2016; Dobermann et al., 2017; Musundire et al., 2021; Tanga et al., 2021). The feed conversion efficiency and low environmental impact of insect farming make it a viable alternative to higher animal production (van Huis, 2015; Tang et al., 2019). Edible insects can be raised with little energy and resources and provide essential nutrients (van Huis and Oonincx, 2017). Insect and insect-derived products can be a viable ement for more conventional protein sources, including soy, egg, maize, grains and fishmeal (Gałęcki et al., 2021; Pinotti et al., 2019; van Huis, 2015). Insects can also serve as an alternative feed for livestock, such as fish, ruminants and poultry (Toral et al., 2022).
Edible insects in Africa have been for many years a part of the human diet; in fact, insects form part of complementary food in 90% of African diets (Kelemu et al., 2015; Muya et al., 2022; Niassy et al., 2016a). About 2,100 edible insect species are consumed as an alternate source of protein by millions of people worldwide (Abril et al., 2022; Halloran et al., 2018; Toti et al., 2020; van Huis, 2020). In Africa, about 500 edible insects including beetles, termites, caterpillars, grasshoppers, crickets, bees, and maggots have been recorded (Hlongwane et al., 2020a; Mariod, 2013; Séré et al., 2018). Out of the 500 edible insect species, 256 species are consumed in the Central African region, 164 in Southern Africa, 100 species in Eastern Africa, 91 in Western Africa, and 8 species in Northern Africa (Kelemu et al., 2015). With a rich biodiversity of insect species, Africa has long recognized the value of incorporating insects into its culinary traditions and diets (Mariod, 2020a), as well as utilization of insects as medicine (Siddiqui et al., 2023a).
The inadequacy of food supply in Africa and the poor quality of the available foods have caused chronic hunger and malnutrition among the people, where children, pregnant women, and the elderly are more vulnerable. Data in 2020, recorded 21% of the African population suffering from undernourishment (Bahar et al., 2020; FAO et al., 2021). In a continent where malnutrition and food insecurity are persistent challenges, edible insects may present a readily available and affordable source of nutrition, particularly for vulnerable communities. In this context, edible insects may be considered a cheap source of dietary proteins, fat, minerals, and vitamins (Alamu et al., 2013; Rumpold and Schlüter, 2013a). Insects are therefore very important for rural populations; in some areas they are the primary livelihood, as well as being a significant – and sometimes the only – protein and vitamins source for women and children (Kelemu et al., 2015; Matandirotya et al., 2022; Niassy et al., 2016a). They are being considered an alternative source of protein because of their low cost compared to other animal-based products (Legendre and Baker, 2022; Usman and Yusuf, 2020; Veldkamp et al., 2022). According to the United Nations report, edible insects may contribute to zero hunger and no poverty (Hlongwane et al., 2021), suggesting the need to consume insects and insect-based products. Moreover, promoting entomophagy encourages the sustainable use of natural resources, as insect farming require significantly less land, water, and feed compared to traditional livestock (van Huis and Oonincx, 2017). By integrating edible insects into farming practices, Africans can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and alleviate the strain on land and water resources, contributing to a more sustainable and resilient agricultural system. Additionally, embracing entomophagy not only benefits human health and the environment but also preserves cultural heritage. Insects have been consumed for generations in Africa (van Huis et al., 2013; Mariod, 2020a), and by appreciating and continuing this traditional practice, communities can maintain their cultural identity while adapting to modern challenges.
In this review, the history of entomophagy is initially introduced to give an overview. This review then highlights the importance of edible insects in Africa for the people and environment, the kinds of commonly eaten edible insects, the nutritional composition of the insects, and their collection and production. In addition, this review depicts the current market scenario and trends of insect consumption in African countries. Furthermore, the legal situation of edible insect consumption and production in Africa is also assessed. Recognizing and harnessing the importance of edible insects and entomophagy in Africa presents a unique opportunity to address food security and foster sustainability.
2 History of insects as food
The practice of eating insects as food has been in existence for millions of years. The term “insectivory” refers to nonhuman species, mainly plants and animals that consume insects as food. The earliest insectivore’s animals were small to medium-sized, with long snouts and distinctive teeth well-suited for capturing and consuming insects (Mittwoch, 1967). The primitive insect eaters include hedgehogs, shrews, and moles. Moreover, insects consumed by frogs, lizards, bats, anteaters, and fish have been recorded for millions of years (Matas, 2010). This demonstrates that, insects were consumed by species ranging from lower to higher animals. However, it is not clear why the Greek term “entomophagy,” which has a more recent lexical origin, was chosen as the appropriate term for humans to consume insects (a distinction that is not always acknowledged or used); perhaps, ironically, it was done to prevent certain human individuals and groups from being othered (let alone “animalized”) (Evans et al., 2015; Leer and Kjær, 2015).
The Greek word éntomon, meaning “insect,” and “phagein,” meaning “to eat,” are the origins of the English term “entomophagy,” which means to eat insects (Leigh-Howarth, 2022). Insects as a food date back to ancient times, commonly practiced among our primitive ancestors (van Huis, 2003). Historically, the consumption of insects by humans was a global practice, with preference, social significance, and geographical location all playing major roles in how and where our primates use edible insects (O’Malley and McGrew, 2014). Insect consumption is also well documented in nonhuman primates, such as galagos (Galago crassicaudatus and Galago senegalensis), pottos (Perodicticus potto), and tarsiers (Tarsius spectrum) (Hamad et al., 2014; Harcourt, 1986; Isbell and Young, 2007). However, insects are less frequently consumed by medium primates, including colobus monkeys (Procolobus tephrosceles) and blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis) (Chapman et al., 2002; Hamad, 2014; Struhsaker, 2010). As such, insects, in contrast to more conventional foods like fruit and vegetables, are rich in protein and fat and contribute significantly to primates’ diets. In the lower primates, insects form a major component of their diets more than in the medium primates. In the higher primates like apes, including chimpanzee, bonobo, orangutan and gibbon populations, these species have a higher number of insects in their diets (Cipolletta, 2007; Deblauwe et al., 2008; Deblauwe and Dekoninck, 2007; Deblauwe and Janssens, 2008; Galdikas, 1988; Ganas and Robbins, 2004). It turns out that for some ape species, insects provide protein for these species. A recent study which used molecular faecal analysis detected that termites and several other insects were consumed by the African great apes (Hamad et al., 2017). When compared to the rest of their diets, the number of insects consumed by western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) in Cameroon as estimated by faecal analysis was negligible (Deblauwe and Janssens, 2008). Entomophagy may have been crucial in the evolution of man, taking into account how edible insects function in the lives of our closest relatives, the apes (McGrew, 2014).
In the Old Testament, accounts of permitting the consumption of clean insects were mentioned as “Even these of them ye may eat; the locust after his kind, and the bald locust after his kind, and the beetle after his kind, and the grasshopper after his kind” (King James Version: Leviticus 11:22-24). “However, you may eat the following kinds of winged creatures that walk on all fours: those having jointed legs above their feet for hopping on the ground.” Apart from these records in the bible, the consumption of edible insects (locusts) was also mentioned as food for John the Baptist when he was preaching in the wilderness (Mark 1:6; Mathew 3:4; Kelhoffer, 2004). Muslims are permitted to consume edible insects and insects mentioned in the Koran, like locusts (El-Mallakh and El-Mallakh, 1994). However, most of the insects mentioned were locusts. Thus, it is allowed to consume locusts (Sahih Muslim, 21.4801), because “locusts are a game of the sea; you may eat them” (Sunaan ibn Majah, 4.3222). It has also been recorded that “Locusts are Allah’s troops; you may eat them” (Sunaan ibn Majah, 4.3219, 3220; El-Mallakh and El-Mallakh, 1994). In the case of the Islamic lore, the Koran justifies the consumption of locusts, describing them as a “game of the sea” and “Allah’s troops”. Later, the practice of entomophagy persisted in the ancient civilizations of China, Rome, and Greece as people developed over the millennia (Leigh-Howarth, 2022).
In China, eating insects has an ancient tradition. They first consumed ants in Guangxi, according to Lu You of the Song Dynasty and Kuang Lu of the Ming Dynasty, where the emperors consumed ants, cicadas, and wasps. This tradition was passed on through generations (Liu et al., 2019; Zhi-Yi, 1997). According to Zhi-Yi (1997), the record of eating insects as food in China dates back to 120 BC. Around this period, the tribal heads in Guangxi offered their visitors a marmalade made with ants as a delicacy. After some time, insects, such as flies, beetle larvae, Ephemeridae, and chafer larvae, were added to the consumed insects. Silkworms and dragonflies were also added during the reign of the Yuan and Min Dynasties. Afterwards, the imago of Sphingidae, true water beetle, larvae of Tenebrionidae and Cerambycidae were included during the Qin Dynasty (Zhi-Yi, 1997). This, however, suggests that the practice of eating insects in China has a long history of over 3,000 years ago (Feng et al., 2018). The ancient Chinese consumed insects for various purposes, mainly as food and medicine, and these insects were eaten raw or parched or cooked or made into marmalade and sauce (Zhi-Yi, 1997). In Europe, the old European herders and peasants deeply understood the species; like invertebrates, where there is very little research on edible insects (Svanberg et al., 2011; Svanberg and Berggren, 2021). A recent study showed that the oldest mention of the practice of eating insects in Spain originated from cave paintings in Altamira, which dated back to 30,000 to 9,000 BC and demonstrated the collection of edible insects and wild bee nests, suggesting an insect-eating (entomophagous) society (Capinera, 2004). Some insects were valued, some were despised or even feared, and some were used for different reasons, just like in other societies around the world (Svanberg and Berggren, 2021; Ulicsni et al., 2016). In Africa, locust consumption in Liberia dates back to 500 B.C., where locust intake recorded (Zhi-Yi, 1997). In his Naturalis Historia (AD 77), the Roman historian Pliny the Elder describes a tribe of Ethiopians as locust eaters (Svanberg and Berggren, 2021). This suggests that consumption of edible insects has a long history and contribute to food and nutritional security in many parts of Africa.
3 Importance of insects as food in African countries
Significance for people
Insects are consumed for different reasons – not only as a protein source, but also for medicinal, cosmetical or aphrodisiacs purposes – and each indigenous population has their own harvesting and processing techniques (Niassy et al., 2016a). Some farmers employ insects even for waste conversion (Paiko et al., 2012). Commonly, women and children are responsible for the insect business (harvesting, processing and sale), as they are essential for their health. During periods of drought, insects are the main – and sometimes the only – source of protein and fat and helps to combat malnutrition, which is more common in women and children. Additionally, in some rural populations only men have access to other protein sources, therefore women and children depend on insects to ensure that enough proteins are included in their diet (Hlongwane et al., 2020b; Niassy et al., 2016a).
In Africa, insects are a traditional food of rural population households. This because edible insects are seen as a good opportunity for rural households to improve their livelihoods at an economical and nutritional level but are not relevant for urban households with a higher income (Hlongwane et al., 2021; Kelemu et al., 2015). In addition to this, similar as is seen in Western countries, it was observed that consumer acceptance towards insects in Africa is dependent on age, gender, household size, level of education and on the level of familiarity with insects. Households that have been consuming edible insects for generations will keep on doing so, whilst other families who have not will show a lower acceptance to the integration of insects in their diet (Wade and Hoelle, 2020).
Percentage of recorded edible insect species per insect order in sub-Saharan Africa and the world (data are retrieved from Jongema, 2017).
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2023; 10.1163/23524588-20230025
Percentage of recorded edible insect species per insect order in sub-Saharan Africa and the world (data are retrieved from Jongema, 2017).
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2023; 10.1163/23524588-20230025
Percentage of recorded edible insect species per insect order in sub-Saharan Africa and the world (data are retrieved from Jongema, 2017).
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2023; 10.1163/23524588-20230025
Importance for the environment
Insects are more sustainable than animal husbandry; according to the FAO (2013) in order to produce 1 kg of insect proteins 1.7 kg of feed, 2.8 l water, 1 ha are needed compared to 6 kg feed, 43,000 l and 10 ha that is needed to produce 1 kg of beef meat (FAO et al., 2013). Additionally, animal husbandry produces 100 times more greenhouse gas (GHG) than insect rearing (van Huis et al., 2013). Moreover, edible insects can be reared in a circular economy model, which minimizes waste and resources (Ojha et al., 2020). Indeed, waste of the food industry or the agriculture can be used as substrate and as result a valuable protein source is obtained (Ojha et al., 2020; Paiko et al., 2012). This means that for African populations it would be favorable to use edible insects to convert waste, improve their livelihoods and create a sustainable cycle of resource utilization (Kelemu et al., 2015; Paiko et al., 2012). Besides that, the rearing of edible insects can contribute to protect biodiversity, which is currently challenged by intensive agriculture and livestock farming (Raven and Wagner, 2021). The rearing of several insect species can support the maintenance of healthy ecosystems by promoting a balance in biodiversity and protecting endangered species (DeFoliart, 1997).
In Africa, edible insects could contribute to the sustainable development of developing countries, which would benefit both economically and nutritionally (Bahar et al., 2020; Kelemu et al., 2015). Particularly during plague periods in Africa, the consumption of locusts and grasshoppers or the utilization of insects as feed, could be beneficial to manage locusts and grasshopper outbreaks, which are catastrophic for local economies, food security and the environment (van Huis, 2021; Zhang et al., 2019).
Commonly eaten edible insect species in sub-Saharan (data are retrieved from Jongema, 2017).
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2023; 10.1163/23524588-20230025
Commonly eaten edible insect species in sub-Saharan (data are retrieved from Jongema, 2017).
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2023; 10.1163/23524588-20230025
Commonly eaten edible insect species in sub-Saharan (data are retrieved from Jongema, 2017).
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2023; 10.1163/23524588-20230025
4 Various insects eaten in Africa
The tradition of eating edible insects has been critical to human nutrition throughout Africa. A significant aspect of African culinary culture is the historical use of insects, which are eaten as a delicacy, the last resort, or a primary source of nutrition (Hlongwane et al., 2021; Musundire et al., 2021). There are about 500 edible insects in Africa (Jongema, 2017; van Huis, 2020). Among the insects that are consumed in Africa, caterpillars (Lepidoptera) account for 30.93% of the edible insects, followed by Orthoptera, which accounts for 22.8% (Figure 1). However, it appears that there are more edible insect species recorded in Africa in the Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, and Blattodea order and fewer in the Coleoptera and Hymenoptera order (van Huis, 2020). The commonly eaten edible insect species in Africa belong the order Blattodea, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera and Orthoptera (Figure 2, Supplementary Table S1).
Description of common edible insects in Africa
In sub-Saharan Africa, several insects are consumed as food by many tribes (Figure 3). These insects are either collected from the field or reared under laboratory conditions, and the various stages of the edible insects are either boiled, roasted, fried, or dried before consumption. In contrast, some of the insects are eaten raw.
Macrotermes subhyalinus (termite); (b) Acheta domesticus (house cricket); (c) Rhyncophorus phoenicis (African palm weevil larvae); (d) Alphitobius diaperinus (lesser mealworm); (e) Ruspolia differens (bush cricket); (f) Apis mellifera (honey bee larvae); (g) Locusta migratoria (migratory locust); (h) Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (red palm weevil larvae); (i) Imbrasia oyemensis (caterpillar); (j) Oryctes monoceros (rhinoceros beetle larvae); (k) Imbrasia epimethea (caterpillar); (l) Gryllotalpa africana (mole cricket); (m) Gnathocera trivittata (nsike); (n) Nomadacris septemfasciata (red locust); (o) Cirina forda (misigi). Source: Ishara et al., 2022.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2023; 10.1163/23524588-20230025
Macrotermes subhyalinus (termite); (b) Acheta domesticus (house cricket); (c) Rhyncophorus phoenicis (African palm weevil larvae); (d) Alphitobius diaperinus (lesser mealworm); (e) Ruspolia differens (bush cricket); (f) Apis mellifera (honey bee larvae); (g) Locusta migratoria (migratory locust); (h) Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (red palm weevil larvae); (i) Imbrasia oyemensis (caterpillar); (j) Oryctes monoceros (rhinoceros beetle larvae); (k) Imbrasia epimethea (caterpillar); (l) Gryllotalpa africana (mole cricket); (m) Gnathocera trivittata (nsike); (n) Nomadacris septemfasciata (red locust); (o) Cirina forda (misigi). Source: Ishara et al., 2022.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2023; 10.1163/23524588-20230025
Macrotermes subhyalinus (termite); (b) Acheta domesticus (house cricket); (c) Rhyncophorus phoenicis (African palm weevil larvae); (d) Alphitobius diaperinus (lesser mealworm); (e) Ruspolia differens (bush cricket); (f) Apis mellifera (honey bee larvae); (g) Locusta migratoria (migratory locust); (h) Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (red palm weevil larvae); (i) Imbrasia oyemensis (caterpillar); (j) Oryctes monoceros (rhinoceros beetle larvae); (k) Imbrasia epimethea (caterpillar); (l) Gryllotalpa africana (mole cricket); (m) Gnathocera trivittata (nsike); (n) Nomadacris septemfasciata (red locust); (o) Cirina forda (misigi). Source: Ishara et al., 2022.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2023; 10.1163/23524588-20230025
Blattodea
Termites. Termites are “social insects,” meaning they form large colonies and reside underground, usually close to a dead tree, stump, wood pile, or other food supply (Waldvogel and Alder, 2017). Termites undergo incomplete metamorphosis, with egg, nymph, and adult phases. There are thousands of termites described so far in many continents except Antarctica, with a few hundred more left to be described. The caste of the termite colony consists of a king and a queen that are brownish. The queen lays thousands of eggs yearly while the soldiers protect the colony from intruders. The longevity of termites can be more than 10 days. At least 45 species of termites from four different families are used around the globe as food and feed, respectively (Figueirêdo et al., 2017). Currently, nine different termite species are being exploited for medicinal purposes. Based on seasonal availability, edible winged termites are a staple food and are typically eaten as a snack when they are raw, fried, or sun-dried. The high iron concentration of termite species is accompanied by high levels of protein (20.40-65.62%), lipids (21.35-46.10%), and linoleic acid (1.90-11.26%) (Rumpold and Schlüter, 2013a). In many parts of Africa, termites are harvested either by chipping termite mounds or by catching them with inverted pots or baskets loaded with organic stuff and placed near termite nests. Common edible termites in Africa include Macrotermes nigeriensis and Macrotermes bellicosus (Alamu et al., 2013). Macrotermes nigeriensis is a eusocial insect belonging to the Isoptera order and family Termitidae. In several regions of Nigeria and numerous other African nations, the gregarious termite M. nigeriensis is consumed as a delicacy. They provide adequate amounts of protein and minerals including iron, zinc, and vitamin C, but inadequate amounts of calcium (Anyiam et al., 2022). It can be eaten in its powdered form and is typically served with maize meal porridge. It can also be cooked, fried, grilled, roasted, and sun-dried. (Anyiam et al., 2022). Macrotermes bellicosus are typically tiny, with lengths ranging from 4 to 15 mm. It is the largest termite known to man, with workers and queens each being around 1.4 inches (36 mm) in length and soldiers being somewhat longer (Mariod et al., 2017a). The species belongs to a genus that is native to Southeast Asia and Africa. These insects are especially crucial in underdeveloped nations where malnutrition is widespread because termite protein can enhance the human diet. The insect has a 31.46 (wet weight) fat content. The oil was a light-yellow liquid that was clear, odourless, and fluid at room temperature (26 °C). According to lipid analysis, the insect oil contained 10.81% glycolipids, 19.14% phospholipids, and 69.87% neutral lipids (Mariod et al., 2017a).
Coleoptera
Oryctes monoceros. The African coconut beetle O. monoceros, also known as the palm beetle, prefers to lay its eggs in the soil around young oil palms, adult oil palms, dead standing palms, and piles of empty fruit bunches (Anugerah et al., 2020). They feed on dead and decaying materials (Aidoo et al., 2022). Oryctes monoceros undergoes complete metamorphosis (eggs, larvae, pupa and adults). It feeds on preferred habitats such as decomposing wood, compost, and grass. The adults lay their eggs in these organic materials, and it takes around 10-13 days for the eggs to hatch and the first instars to emerge. The first instar can take 9-20 days to reach the second instar and another 34-54 days to reach the third instar. After the pupal stage, the larvae moult into adults, which typically lasts between 20-30 days, though this timeframe can vary greatly depending on factors like temperature and food availability. The adult O. monoceros can live for about 6 months before it dies. The larvae and adult stage are edible and are consumed in countries like Nigeria and Ghana. These stages are either consumed, boiled smoked or fried (Ifie and Emeruwa, 2011).
Rhynchophorus phoenicis. The African palm weevil, R. phoenicis, is an important food source in many rural communities throughout Africa’s tropical and equatorial regions. The females of all Rhynchophorus species are attracted to volatiles produced by palms, and once inside, they lay many eggs in dead or dying areas of the palm. A description of the morphology of the weevil has been provided by CABI (2022). The shape of the eggs is oval with yellowish-white colour. It measures about 2-3 mm long. The hatchability takes about 3 days, and the newly emerged larvae bore into the crown and trunk. At this stage, the larvae are fat, legless, grub-like, yellowish-white, and have little brown heads. The larvae measure about 5-10 cm in length. The last segment of the abdomen is concave and contains brown bristles along its margins. The head of the larvae is enlarged with powerful mandibles. Many people in tropical Africa consume the ovoid or spherical larvae as food. The larvae of palm tree weevils feed on many species of palms, boring into the trunk, while the adults feed on the terminal buds (Lokela et al., 2021). Moreover, larvae collected in the wild appears to have a higher weight and lipid, and longer length than those reared in the laboratory. The African palm weevil completes its life cycle within the host plant. The larvae grow within cocoons out of the host plant where the pupae mature. The cocoons measure approximately 8 by 3.5 cm. The adults of R. phoenicis measure about 33-44 mm in length (not including the beak) and 2 cm in width (Tambe et al., 2018). The larvae are consumed in African countries, inducing Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Niger, Nigeria, São Tomé and Prı́ncipe and Togo. The larvae are frequently eaten raw, cooked, fried, smoked, and occasionally used to make stews and soups, either as a component of a meal or as a complete meal (Temitope, 2013). The larvae have two morphotypes (i.e. yellow and white). The yellow morphotype contains more amounts of lipids, carotenoid, and energy than the white morphotype (Mba et al., 2018).
Alphitobius diaperinus. It is a beetle which larvae are consumed in Africa. It has been associated with a wide variety of grains and legumes, including peanuts, soybeans, peas, and peanuts (Mariod et al., 2017b). The addition of A. diaperinus powder to soft wheat leavened crunchy snacks to increase their protein and mineral content (Roncolini et al., 2020). The beetle’s crude protein content was found to be more than that of soybean meal and comparable to that of poultry meat meal and fish meal (Mariod et al., 2017b). The fat contains up to 22.0% of dry matter, percentage of crude ash was 4.1%, and crude protein of 927 milligrammes of amino acids per gramme (Mariod et al., 2017b). They are often used in traditional dishes or ground into a powder for culinary purposes.
Lepidoptera
Gonimbrasia belina. The mopane worm, G. belina, is a large caterpillar distributed in the warmer regions of South Africa, where it is consumed as food. The caterpillars have mopane woodlands as their habitats, where there are mopane trees (Colophospermum mopane), from which the caterpillar receives all of its nutrition (Headings and Rahnema, 2002; Kwiri et al., 2020). They also feed on other plants, including Carissa grandiflora, Diospyros, Ficus, Rhus, Sclerocarya caffra, Terminalia and Trema. The mature larvae have black with red, grey and greenish speckles. The larvae of G. belina are a highly nutritious and common delicacy for many people in Southern Africa (Bara et al., 2022).
Cirina butyrospermi. The shea caterpillar, C. butyrospermi, is a lepidopteran insect which feeds exclusively on the shea tree. The larvae are eaten by many people in Africa’s shea growing belt, such as Burkina Faso and other parts of Africa. The insect is one of the most common sources of insect protein in human food in the region (Payne et al., 2020). The caterpillars were either consumed fresh after being cooked, dried and stored for months, or traded in markets as a source of fat and protein (Payne et al., 2020).
Hemijana variegata. It is an edible caterpillar of in South Africa. Oven-dried caterpillars range from 51 to 54% protein, while traditionally prepared caterpillars have just 44.5% protein (Egan et al., 2014). Out of 90 different edible ethno-species, it is ranked as the seventh most popular in the Blouberg region of Limpopo, South Africa. In the northern parts of South Africa, the larvae are considered a delicacy. The caterpillars can be consumed as boiled, roasted followed by oven-drying. H. variegata prepared traditionally contains a lot of energy (306 kcal/100 g), protein (44.5%), and fat (20%), and in the northern regions of South Africa, the larvae are consumed as a delicacy (Egan et al., 2015).
Orthoptera
Schistocerca gregaria. The desert locust, S. gregaria, is a pest of many crops and rangeland vegetation in Africa and Asia (Lecoq and Zhang, 2019; Showler, 2019; Showler and Lecoq, 2021). They can live one of two different life cycles depending on the habitat they inhabit: as a lone individual (solitary phase), or they can join other conspecifics to form swarms of migrating locusts (gregarious phase). It can lay eggs that hatch into a variety of different coloured insects (Maeno et al., 2018). The Locust has a lifespan of 3-5 weeks, depending on environmental conditions. It undergoes incomplete metamorphosis, comprising of three stages, namely egg, hopper (or nymph) and adult. The locust provides protein, carbohydrate, and ash which useful in human nutrition (Kietzka et al., 2021). The desert locusts are a staple in many African and Arabian dishes, but they are also widely consumed in other parts of the world (Mariod, 2020a). The adults can be fried roasted or boiled before eating.
Zonocerus variegatus. The variegated grasshopper, Z. variegatus, are polyphagous insect from nymph to adult (Ademolu et al., 2013). Zonocerus variegatus is native to tropical Africa. It is found in Congo, Benin, Ghana, Togo, Ivory Coast, and Nigeria. The host range includes cassava, groundnuts and vegetables. The variegated grasshopper is consumed in Africa and Asia and has a long history of consumption since ancient times. They may be consumed dried (Babayi et al., 2018). They can also be raw, boiled, smoked, or fried (Ifie and Emeruwa, 2011). The adult grasshoppers are rich in animal proteins and minerals and are best consumed after being fried in red oil with salt and pepper (Ademolu et al., 2013; Idowu et al., 2004; Kehinde et al., 2017; Kekeunou and Tamesse, 2016).
Ruspolia differens. The edible bush cricket, R. differens, is native to Africa and is adapted to grassland habitats. This cricket is widely distributed in areas with high rainfall and is commonly found in Sub-Sahara Africa (Kelemu et al., 2015; Malinga et al., 2020; Massa, 2015). The body length of the adults ranges from 36.1 to 36.08 cm (Mazza et al., 2013). The eggs are thin and cone-shaped, with rounded basal ends, tapering apical ends, and a small curvature. The species contributes to food and nutritional security in many African countries (Odongo et al., 2018). It accepts and consumes a variety of grasses and certain sedge species, making it a facultatively oligophagous grass specialist (Malinga et al., 2020). After the wings are removed, the grasshoppers can be eaten uncooked.
Gryllus bimaculatus. The two-spotted cricket, G. bimaculatus, belongs to the Gryllinae subfamily. Although the two-spotted cricket is best known by its more popular name, “African” or “Mediterranean field cricket,” its range extends throughout much of Asia, from China and Indochina to Borneo. Due to its adaptability in the laboratory, short reproductive cycle, lack of diapause requirement, tolerance for high-density rearing, and resistance to diseases, G. bimaculatus can be successfully raised outside of its native range. This cricket is widely distributed in Africa and Southern Eurasia, and frequently taken from the wild for human consumption (Ventura et al., 2022). The species undergoes incomplete metarmorphosis; eggs, nymphs and adults (Donoughe and Extavou 2016). The adult cricket is commonly consumed after roasting (Ahn et al., 2011).
5 Composition of some African edible insects
Entomophagy in Africa encompass a wide range of species, including grasshoppers, caterpillars, beetles, termites, bees, and wasps, which have been consumed by humans (Banjo et al., 2006). For example, in many regions of western Nigeria, palm weevil grubs are fried and aggressively promoted as a food source. The mopane worm, the caterpillar stage of the species G. belina, is commonly consumed as food in Botswana, Northern South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Namibia (Banjo et al., 2006).
Despite the cultural significance and diversity of African edible insects, it is important to explore their nutritional composition. Research has demonstrated that these insects offer a range of essential nutrients. For instance, a study by Oonincx and Finke (2021) analyzed the nutritional content of African edible insects and found that they are rich in protein, vitamins, minerals, and healthy fats. Protein levels in edible insects can be comparable to or even higher than those found in conventional animal sources, making them a valuable protein alternative (Oonincx and Finke, 2021).
Additionally, edible insects have been shown to contain essential amino acids, including lysine and methionine, which are often limited in plant-based protein sources (Ramos-Elorduy, 2009). These insects are also rich in micronutrients such as iron, calcium, zinc, and vitamins B and E, which are important for overall health and well-being (Oonincx et al., 2010; Ramos-Elorduy, 2009).
African edible insects encompass a diverse range of species and play a significant role in traditional diets across the continent. Recognized for their nutritional value, these insects provide essential nutrients, including protein, vitamins, minerals, and healthy fats. With the challenges surrounding wild harvesting, promoting the consumption of edible insects offers a sustainable and nutritious solution for addressing food security and nutritional needs in Africa and beyond. According to Rumpold and Schlüter (2015), insects are a great source of protein, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals. In addition to traditional entomophagy, which involves consuming insects in various regions of the world, the desire to raise edible insects has been fuelled by the demand for alternate sources of nutrition for people and animals (FAO, 2021; Tanga et al., 2021; Verner et al., 2021). The nutrient composition of some edible insect’s species in Africa is shown in Supplementary Table S2.
Mopane worm
Economically and nutritionally significant in Southern Africa, where it is a staple of the diet, is the mopane worm G. belina (Kwiri et al., 2020). The nutritional and commercial importance of the mopane worm G. belina in Southern Africa was proven. It has become the most popular and lucrative bug in Africa (van Huis, 2013). The mopane worm is the larval stage of emperor moth (Ditlhogo, 1996).
Mopane worms are nutrient-rich, with a protein content of about 58%, a fat content of 15%, and significant amounts of minerals (Glew et al., 1999; Headings and Rahnema, 2002). Mopane worms have a lipid content of 15%, with fatty acids making up 75% of the crude lipid component (Glew et al., 1999). The ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids was about 62% to 38% (Rumpold and Schlüter, 2013b). With 32% of palmitic acid, 34% of oleic acid, a monounsaturated fatty acid, and 19.6% of linolenic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid, mopane worms have a significant amount of these fatty acids. According to Bukkens (2005), the fatty acid content of edible insects depends on their nutrition during development and growth. Unsaturated fatty acids render foods made from insects susceptible to oxidation. With an average amount of 58% on a dry basis in larvae, proteins are the primary component of mopane worms’ nutritional composition (Glew et al., 1999). The mopane worm is said to have a substantial number of essential minerals (Kwiri et al., 2020).
When it comes to the bioactive component, mopane leaves, which G. belina feed on are typically not preferred by vertebrate herbivores and are only used in drought years. This suggests that the leaves may contain plant defence compounds such as phenolics and tannins, potentially indicating the presence of bioactive compounds and antinutritional factors in mopane worms. Previous research conducted in the Venetia-Limpopo Nature Reserve on the chemistry of mopane leaves from various habitats found an average of 63.2 g (dry weight basis) of total polyphenolic compounds and 0.59 g (dry weight basis) of condensed tannin-protein ratio (Hrabar et al., 2009). However, despite these findings on the mopane leaves, there is currently no research available on the specific bioactive substances found in mopane worms themselves and their effects on human upon consumption.
Termites
Macrotermes bellicosus are sociable insects that are most abundant in Nigeria during the rainy season (Ekpo and Onigbinde, 2007). Dried winged termites are widely recognized as an excellent source of nutritional fat, protein, and minerals (Adepoju and Omotayo, 2014; Banjo et al., 2006). A 100 g dried sample of adult termites contained 50-62 g protein, 13-20 g fat and 14.21-17.09 g fibre (Adepoju and Ajayi, 2016; Ekpo and Onigbinde, 2007; Ghosh et al., 2020). Phosphorus was the most abundant macro mineral (29.58 mg/100 g) and barium was the most abundant trace mineral (2.192 mg/100 g). Palmitic acid was the main fatty acid with total unsaturated fatty acids being 59% of the total fatty acids. Termites are low in anti-nutrients, and they may be used to create appropriate, nutrient-dense supplementary diets with nutraceutical advantages (Adepoju and Omotayo, 2014). Termites are rich in vitamins, minerals, proteins, and lipids, ensuring food security for low-income homes. Termites possess high levels of protein, including critical amino acids such as tryptophan, which is often deficient in other food sources. This nutritional composition renders them a valuable food source with significant nutritional value. They are abundant in important fatty acids and minerals as well (Booth, 1998). Since termites are a strong source of heme iron, using them in the diet regularly may help develop nations’ iron statuses and avoid anemia. Study from Banjo et al. (2006) demonstrated the use of various termite species to enhance both human meals and animal feed, the utilization of M. bellicosus in supplementary meals made from maize and sorghum resulted in significant improvements. The inclusion of M. bellicosus led to a notable decrease in moisture content, while increasing the levels of crude protein, fat, ash, total carbohydrates, minerals, and gross energy content.
Cricket
Cricket, mainly Acheta domesticus, is an insect species that has gained significant attention due to its potential as a sustainable and nutritious food source. Extensive research has been conducted to explore the nutritional composition and potential health benefits of consuming A. domesticus. Several studies have investigated the nutritional composition of A. domesticus and reported findings that further highlight its potential as a valuable food source. According to a study by Udomsil et al. (2019), a 100 g dried sample of A. domesticus contained approximately 60-70 g of protein. From the study of Ayieko and Orinda (2020), a 100 g dried sample of adult cricket A. domesticus contained 64-76 g protein. This high protein content makes it a promising alternative to traditional protein sources, such as meat and legumes.
Furthermore, the fat content of A. domesticus has also been investigated. In a study conducted by Kulma et al. (2019), it was found that the fat content of A. domesticus ranged from 15 to 20 g per 100 g of dried sample. According to study by Ayieko and Orinda (2020), adult crickets content 18.55-22.80 g fat. Palmitic acid was the main fatty acid with total unsaturated fatty acids being 40.72% of the total fatty acids. Acheta domesticus also contains vitamins that contribute to its nutritional value. According to a study by Payne et al. (2020), A. domesticus is a good source of B vitamins, including thiamine (vitamin B1), riboflavin (vitamin B2), and niacin (vitamin B3). Based on study by Ayieko and Orinda (2020), potassium was the most abundant macro mineral (1126.62 mg/100 g), zinc was the most abundant trace mineral (63.96-81.00 mg/100 g) while α-tocopherol content of 63.96-81.00 IU/kg was recorded. Antinutrients often found in plant products have not been detected in cricket protein. The substrates utilized to raise the bug, however, are crucial. Starving crickets for 24 hours prior to harvest is the most crucial action to reduce this in these insects. A further approach is to feed the crickets clean, fresh produce for 24 hours, such as melons, pumpkins, cabbages, kale, or spinach, to rid their stomachs of unwelcome microorganisms. Crickets taste better when served with melons, celery leaves, or dhania (coriander leaves) (Ayieko and Orinda, 2020).
Sorghum bug and watermelon bug
It has been suggested that insects might be a significant source of high-quality, highly digestible proteins (Zhou and Han, 2006). The sorghum bug, Agonoscelis pubescens, is a member of the Hemiptera order (family Pentatomidae), also known as dura andat in Sudan (Mariod, 2020b). The estimated evaluation of the adult A. pubescens insect indicated 7.6% moisture, 28.2% crude protein, 57.3% fat, and about 5% ash on a dry matter basis, based on the investigation from (Mariod, 2020b). According to a preliminary analysis of adults od watermelon bug, Aspongopus viduatus, there was, on a dry matter basis, 8.3% moisture, 27.0% crude protein, 54.2% fat, and 3.5% ash. Palmitic, stearic, oleic, and linoleic acids made up the sorghum bug oil’s (SBO) essential fatty acids. Less saturated fatty acids and more total unsaturated fatty acids were present in the sorghum bug’s oil. Meals must contain enough tocopherol to prevent dietary lipids from oxidizing, extending their shelf life and preserving their nutritional value (Kamal-Eldin and Appelqvist, 1996). Comparing the SBO to other popular vegetable oils, such as sesame oil, groundnut oil, or sunflower oil, where the tocopherol content ranges from 27.9 to 97.6 mg/100 g, the SBO had higher levels of tocopherols (34.0 mg/100 g) (Mariod, 2020c).
Migratory locust
Researchers found that 100 g of the dry matter from the body of the migratory locust, Locusta migratoria, had 50-62% protein (Kouřimská and Adámková, 2016; Mohamed, 2015a; Siddiqui et al., 2023b). In addition, L. migratoria has a greater protein content than many other plant species (Kouřimská and Adámková, 2016). According to Mohamed (2015a), L. migratoria is an excellent source of fat, which is the second most important part of the insect’s body. Essentially, phospholipids make up less than 20% of the total fat found in the body of the insect, whereas triglycerides make up 80% of it (Ekpo and Onigbinde, 2007; Kouřimská and Adámková, 2016).
In L. migratoria, the dry matter contains 13-20% fat (Kouřimská and Adámková, 2016; Mohamed, 2015a). A concurrent investigation found that L. migratoria has 25 known fatty acids. About 84 mg/g of the fat is saturated, compared to 121 mg/g of unsaturated fat, including 12 mg/g of omega-6 and 25 mg/g of omega-3 (Mohamed, 2015b). Compared to other nutrients, the percentage of carbohydrates in edible insects is low (Yin et al., 2017). Studies have shown that between 4% and 6% of L. migratoria’s weight is made up of carbohydrates. Chitin, the primary source of carbohydrates in an insect’s body, makes up around 17% of an adult insect on average, whereas the pupa and larva have a lower proportion of chitin (Yin et al., 2017). Chitin, which is regarded as the primary fiber component of the insect’s body, is found in the exoskeleton of insects. Chitin is an insoluble fiber that may be broken down by the chitinase enzyme when consumed through food. This enzyme is present in native tropical peoples’ stomach juice and is used to break down insects, which are their primary source of food (Muzzarelli et al., 2001). Chitin is also referred to as animal fiber since it functions similarly to cellulose inside the human body (Kouřimská and Adámková, 2016). According to studies, the Locusta migratoria has a 16% fiber content (Mohamed, 2015a).
Edible insects’ bodies contain a variety of macro- and micro-minerals that the human body needs, particularly iron, copper, zinc, and magnesium. There are 27 mineral elements in locusts (Yin et al., 2017). According to Mohamed (2015a), 100 g of the dry matter from L. migratoria included a high amount of phosphorus (27-33 ppm), compared to other minerals (Ba, Fe, Zn, Al, B, Cr, Pb, Co, and Mn), which measured roughly 0.04-2 ppm.
Desert locust
From the study of Kinyuru (2021), 100 g sample of desert locust (S. gregaria) contained 450 Kcal energy, 46 g protein, 32 g fat and 4 g fibre. Total energy was 450.83 Kcal/100 g of the edible portion this being within the range (216-652 Kcal/100 g) reported in a review by Rumpold and Schlüter (2013b). The high energy content can be attributed to the high content of protein and fat reported in the analysed samples. Protein was the highest macronutrient (46.27 g/100 g) which was comparable to values (52.3 g/100 g) reported for desert locust collected from Sudan (Mariod, 2020a). The protein content of the desert locust is higher than most conventional foods such as beef and chicken (Rumpold and Schlüter, 2013b). Based on other studies, the quality of protein in insects is high (Fombong et al., 2017; Kinyuru et al., 2010). Consequently, the protein quality from the desert locust could also be high and hence may be considered as an equally good source of animal protein for human consumption. From the study, consumption of 100 g of the desert locust contributed 100% of the adult protein. The fat content (32.29 g/100 g) was higher than values reported for a similar species (12 g/100 g) (Mariod, 2020a) and 17% (Rumpold and Schlüter, 2013b). However, such high levels of fats have been reported for other orthopterans such as R. differens 46-48% (Kinyuru et al., 2010) and 31-49% (Rutaro et al., 2018b). It is important however to note that fat content can vary even within the same developmental stage of an insect species depending on the diet and age (Rutaro et al., 2018a; Rutaro et al., 2018b). Fat is an important source of energy in addition to other biochemical functions in the human body. Fat is also essential in food products because it increases the palatability of foods by influencing development of unique flavour during processing (Kenji et al., 2012). The fibre value obtained (4.83 g/100 g) may represent a measure of true fiber values of the desert locust’s digestive contents, as these insects feed on vegetative matter. Among the analysed minerals, calcium was the most abundant macro mineral (208.86 g/100 g) while manganese was the least (3.57 mg/100 g) reported. Retinol (0.55 μg/g) and α-tocopherol (267.47 μg/g) were the two fat soluble vitamins analysed in the study from (Kinyuru, 2021). The locust may still contribute to the daily vitamin A and vitamin E requirements and can supplement the widely consumed plant food sources. Consumption of 100 g of the desert locust contributes 5% calcium, 4% potassium, 6% sodium, 60% iron, 46% of zinc and 3821 of Vitamin E. This shows a significant contribution of nutrients in the human’s diet (Kinyuru, 2021). Oleic acid was the main fatty acid (30.78%) with total unsaturated fatty acids being 66.47% of the total fatty acids. The n-6:n-3 ratio of 2,4 was reported which indicated a significant nutritional quality of the locust oil (Kinyuru, 2021).
Palm weevil
The South Nigerian Isoko tribe enjoys eating larvae of African palm weevil (R. phoenicis), which is regarded as a delicacy. The trunks of palm trees are used to catch these insects, which are then cooked by frying in a saucepan or frying pan. The larvae of palm weevils are meaty, grub-like, and have a high fat content. Palm weevils can grow to be four inches long and more than two inches broad (Elemo et al., 2011). The defatted sample’s (dry weight basis) protein content was 66.3% whereas the oil content was 37.1%. The defatted sample’s ash concentration was 5.2%, which was comparable to study from Banjo et al. (2006). The energy estimate was 478.6 kcal, which is a reasonable value expected from a protein-rich sample. Edible insects have been shown to have a higher protein content, on a mass basis, than other animal and plant foods such as beef, chicken, fish, soybeans, and maize (Teffo et al., 2007). The potassium and phosphorus content of R. phoenicis larvae was found to be high, measuring 1025 and 658 mg/100 g, respectively. According to a study by Singh (2007) on the usage of medico-entomological medications in day-to-day living in various parts of Indian society, palm weevil larva oil is highly beneficial in the creation of pharmaceuticals due to the presence of the necessary fatty acids. Palm weevil larvae is being used as traditional medicine products in India to cure bronchial catarrh (Devi et al., 2023). Linoleic acid made up 3.51% of total lipids. Stearic acid (C18:0), which made up a considerable 60.47% of the lard from palm weevils, was the main fatty acid. Unsaturated lipids make up just 4.23% of the total lipids, whereas palmitic acid (C16:0) accounts for 33.3% of the total lipids. There are now inquiries into the peculiarities of the properties of palm weevil larva oil extract.
6 Production of edible insects
Although African countries consume one-fourth of the world edible insects (van Huis, 2013), the continent is at the infant stage of developing large scale insects’ farms. Until recently, the main source of edible insects in most African countries were largely from field/wild harvesting. The production values of insects in many countries in African are less documented mainly due to the wild/field collection. Also, the production volumes are fluctuated with season and location of the collections (Mariod, 2020d). Indigenous African insect harvesting techniques rely on the use of tools such as sound, brooms, water and light traps catching insects. Harvesters of stink bugs climb trees up to three metres long to access the insect (Mariod, 2020d). Although, in Africa, insect farming is at its infancy stage mainly due to technological know-how and the cost involve in automation for mass insect rearing, insect farming in the continent has now become an option partly due to climate change and the high degree of acceptance of edible insect (Grabowski, 2017).
Available insect farming technology (Mariod, 2020a)
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2023; 10.1163/23524588-20230025
Available insect farming technology (Mariod, 2020a)
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2023; 10.1163/23524588-20230025
Available insect farming technology (Mariod, 2020a)
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2023; 10.1163/23524588-20230025
For an effective mass production, harvesting and processing of edible insect, the best approach is the adaptation of technology. The technological processes make the production more attractive, higher yield and more cost effective. Mass production of edible insects is defined as the production of 1 t/day. The high potential of insect as food and feed has led to the development of rearing systems and establishment of subsistence and commercial insect farms in Kenya, Uganda, Mali, Madagascar and other African countries (Magara et al., 2019). Insect farming is thought to pose lower risk of agro-zoonosis emergence (Anankware et al., 2021). Insect farming technology can be grouped into xiroculture, hygroculture, aquaculture, and xyloculture (Table 1). Some rearing requires the combination of the production types depending on the life cycle. AgriProtein is the first and largest insect rearing farm in Africa that use organic waste for larvae rearing. The company rears flies in sterile cages, feed with organic waste. With this technology, female flies are able to lay about 100 eggs every week (van Huis, 2013). In Ghana, aspire farms are in to mass rearing of the African palm weevil larva which is a delicacy in most parts of Ghana. The company also train local farmers on techniques for mass rearing of the insect in their homes instead of felling the oil or raffia palm. Other companies into mass production of edible insect in Africa include Insfeed and FasoPro. It is estimated that, the global edible insect market will expand from US $83.4 billion to US $130.3 billion by the year 2024. Acheta domesticus (crickets) are usually reared for commercial purpose in rectangular and cylindrical plastic containers that have ventilation covered with plastic netting in farms (Magara et al., 2019). Cricket rearing produce more than 7,500 tonnes a year in Thailand and 28,800 kg in Kenya. InsectiPro Ltd., Kenya uses automated system to produce approximately one ton of cricket powder monthly within optimal temperature range of 30 °C and 32 °C, and relative humidity from 55% to 75% (Tanga et al., 2021). Rhynchophorus phoenicis larvae are one of the edible insects in Africa. Several rearing methods which depend on agro-waste materials from fruits, banana, pineapple, millet waste and Raphia palms have been developed for mass production of African palm weevil larvae which gives better harvest compared to collection from the wild (Muafor et al., 2017; Quayea et al., 2018). It is estimated that, rearing of R. phoenicis can generate a total revenue of GH¢3018.79, at average monthly production of 755 edible of the larvae (Commander et al., 2019). Previously, mopane worms were harvested for subsistence but now evolving to be more commercially driven in Zimbabwe, Botswana and South Africa (Makhado et al., 2014). In the year 2012, it was reported that, commercial traded of mopane worm was about 16 000 metric tonnes which was valued at US $39 million to US $59 million in southern Africa. However, the trade of this worm increased to US $85 million in the year 2015 (Kelemu et al., 2015). Termites (Blattodea) are the second most consumed insect group in the world, surpassed only by grasshoppers, crickets and locusts. In Nigeria, termites are the most consumed edible insects (Mariod, 2020d). Termites are harvested mainly through breaking the mounds, using light or container traps in open fields or farmlands (Boafo et al., 2019). Insect mass rearing requires detailed understanding of the biology of the insect. Sometime, their living plant diet cannot be substitute with other substrates. Some species need specific habitat or condition during certain life stage to complete their development to adult. Rearing system must accommodate all the requirements for the insects to complete their development and ensure their reproduction. In Africa, most of the edible insect are yet to be fully commercialized, thus most of the insect are obtained through field harvesting.
7 Current market situation in African countries
Change in recent years
Africa is a continent comprised of developing countries which at present is mutating and diversifying at a fast pace due to globalization. Changes are not only seen economically, but also socially, politically and nutritionally (Melo and Tsikata, 2014; Moseley and Battersby, 2020). In addition to this, there is high diversity on the continent with each region and nation at different developmental stages and facing their own challenges (Melo and Tsikata, 2014). For this reason, the current market situation in Africa is highly complex and is grouped differently by two world organizations, namely the World Bank and the Food Agriculture Organization of United Nations (FAO), according to field of interest; economy, political stability, food agriculture, nutrition, and food security (FAO, 2022b; The World Bank, 2022).
Edible insects have long been a traditional protein source for the African rural diet (Hlongwane et al., 2021; Kelemu et al., 2015). However, in the last decade, the focus is shifted to their production and commercialization; and a novel edible insect industry is emerging (Tanga et al., 2021). This, mainly because of environmental, nutritional, and economic benefits (FAO et al., 2013, van Huis, 2020). Besides that, the interest of Western countries into entomophagy has also influenced the rising of this market in African some regions, where edible insects were not highly consumed in the past (Tanga et al., 2021). An example of region where the edible insects market emerged in recent years, is the East Africa. Several companies have been found in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda; Farmers see insect rearing has a low-cost market with high potential (Tanga et al., 2021).
Trends to watch with respect to the consumption of edible insects in African regions
Food patterns, economical and nutritional situation differ amongst African countries. However, similarity can be observed between the five regions, namely Northern, Central, Southern, Eastern and Western Africa (FAO et al., 2021; Melo and Tsikata, 2014). The food diet in the northern area of Africa is the most similar to Western Countries; this is because of the geographical proximity. The countries in Northern Africa have been seen a stronger influence of Europe trends (FAO, 2020; Sibai et al., 2010). Indeed, in North Africa there is the lowest rate of undernourishment and food insecurity and in contrast the rate of chronic metabolic diseases and micronutrients deficiencies have increased in recent years (Fahed et al., 2012; FAO et al., 2021; Sibai et al., 2010). This is because of the food diet, including the consumption and the acceptance towards edible insects, that have changed in the last years: more caloric food in urban areas, in particular fat and animal proteins, is consumed and the consumption of edible insects, which was already low in comparison to other regions, decreased (FAO, 2020; Kelemu et al., 2015; Sibai et al., 2010). The more common insect species consumed by rural and low-income populations are from the order Orthoptera, Coleoptera and Hymenoptera (Kelemu et al., 2015; Mitsuhashi, 2016).
In contrast the central African region is the richest region – with a high species diversity (orders Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Blattodea, Orthoptera and others) – in edible insects, which form part of the rural populations diet, in particular as a reliable source of macro- and micronutrients for women and child (Kelemu et al., 2015). This consumption has been prevalent for the past 5,000 years and is still highly present today (Kelemu et al., 2015). Comparatively in the region of Middle Africa we still see a low intake of meat and dairy products; the diet here is composed mainly of fruits, vegetables, legumes, whole grains, fish and, for low-income households, edible insects (Global Nutrition Report, 2021). For this reason, according to the FAO, the Central and Eastern region of Africa presents the highest prevalence of undernourishment with approximately 70% of the population suffering from moderate or severe food insecurity (FAO et al., 2021). Similar to the central region of Africa, in Southern Africa, malnutrition and food insecurity are still dominant (Hlongwane et al., 2020a). Here edible insects are considered a traditional food with many benefits both, nutritionally and economically. They are a source of protein, vitamins and minerals – especially important for women and children – and the insect rearing creates work and revenue for the rural population (Hlongwane et al., 2020a; Kelemu et al., 2015). However, in recent years their consumption has decreased and today it is only commonly seen in some rural regions (Hlongwane et al., 2020a). Urban areas have instead shifted to a more “westernized” diet and thus, the willingness to eat edible insects has decreased (Hlongwane et al., 2020a; Ronquest-Ross et al., 2015). This shift has meant an increase in the prevalence of obesity and related diseases (FAO et al., 2021). The situation in Eastern Africa is similar to the South: on one side urban areas have seen an increase in the consumption of processed foods. On the other side, the majority of the population still lives in rural areas and does not have regular access to food and clean water (FAO, 2020; Raschke and Cheema, 2008).
Although during the last 400 years, Eastern African countries have been influenced by colonialism, globalization and industrialization, which has in turn also affected their diet, the consumption of edible insects remains quite common in several regions, i.e. Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Madagascar (Kelemu et al., 2015). Similarly, to Southern and Eastern Africa, the consumption of edible insects in the western area is moderate and there is a high diversity in species, which mainly belong to the orders Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Isoptera, Lepidoptera and Orthoptera (van Huis et al., 2013). They have been collected from nature and used as a feed source for fish, but also for human consumption (van Huis, 2015; Kelemu et al., 2015). However, today the diet in Western Africa is similar to those seen in Western countries, i.e. North America and Europe, and this “Westernized diet” mostly consists of processed food, edible oils and sugar-sweetened beverages (Miassi et al., 2022; Popkin et al., 2012). Indeed, the implementation of policies, a better government, political stability and an increase in production capacity and income per capita has resulted additionally to the improvement of the overall food quality leading to a change in the diet and a decrease in malnutrition and food insecurity but in addition an increase in obesity (FAO et al., 2021; Miassi et al., 2022; Ogunniyi et al., 2020).
Current economical and nutritional situation in Africa (FAO et al., 2021; Kelemu et al., 2015)
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2023; 10.1163/23524588-20230025
Current economical and nutritional situation in Africa (FAO et al., 2021; Kelemu et al., 2015)
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2023; 10.1163/23524588-20230025
Current economical and nutritional situation in Africa (FAO et al., 2021; Kelemu et al., 2015)
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2023; 10.1163/23524588-20230025
To the current economical and nutritional situation in the four Africa regions is summarized in Table 2. An intercorrelation among the health status (undernourishment, food security and obesity), the income and the influence of Western countries is overserved, and between the income, the influence of Europe and North America and edible consumption as well. Worku et al. 2017 studied the different food consumption patterns in Africa and observed that income is correlated with diet (Worku et al., 2017). Edible insects are part of rural population households and therefore their consumption is higher in lower- and middle-income countries (Hlongwane et al., 2021; Kelemu et al., 2015). Instead, higher incomes and a higher influence of other countries drive the health status to a lower undernourishment and food insecurity, but a higher obesity rate and leads to a lower consumption of insects. However, if the consumption of edible insects would increase again, a shift of the overall nutritional status could be observed: by seeing a decrease in malnutrition (undernourishment) and obesity (Atanu, 2012; van Huis, 2015).
8 Legal situation of the consumption of insects
Assessment of legal situation in Africa
Edible insects have been encouraged by several institutions to meet global food security, thereby drawing global attention (De Prins, 2014; Khan, 2018). Based previous studies, insects could contribute significantly to the food or feed systems in terms of nutrition and economics, but there are no clear laws regulating their introduction into these supply chains (Dobermann et al., 2017; van Huis, 2016). Whereas some countries have a legal framework that binds the consumption of edible insects, others do not have such a framework to benefit from edible insects and their derived products (Delvendahl et al., 2022; Legendre and Baker, 2022; Mariod, 2020d; Usman and Yusuf, 2021). Specifically, limited information exists on the legal framework supporting the consumption of edible insects in different parts of Africa (Imathiu, 2020; Żuk-Gołaszewska et al., 2022).
Legal framework occurs at various levels of the production, processing, and marketing of insects and insect-derived products. However, in most African countries, a limited regulatory framework discourages investment and new product development about insects and insect-derived products for human food and animal feed (Mariod, 2020d). Most of these countries neither allow nor forbid the assumption of insects as food and feed (Grabowski et al., 2020). In some African countries, like Cape Verde, the consumption of edible insects is illegal in the archipelago (Grabowski et al., 2020). Cape Verde has legalities covering some animals, like higher animals, birds, and bees, to be consumed as food and has prepared a legal framework. Yet, there are no such laws supporting the consumption of insects in the country.
Some countries, such as Algeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central Africa Republic, Ghana, Madagascar, Morocco, Namibia, Nigeria, and South Africa, have no specific legalities for insects as food and feed. Similarly, Togo and Tunisia have no legalities to support the commercial production and marketing of edible insects. In Kenya, a regulatory framework requires companies and institutions to produce, sell, and consume insects or items derived from insects in a certain way (Chrysantus et al., 2020). Specifically, these laws address the Production and Handling of Insects for Food and Feed, Food animals, Welfare-Code of Practice, Agriculture-Sustainability and eco-labelling Requirements, Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP), Environmental Management Coordination, and Public Health and Wildlife Conservation and Management. In Comoros, the Departments of Health, Trade and Industry, and Environmental Affairs; and the Departments of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries are in charge of food safety in the country. However, specific legislation for edible insects is lacking. Similarly, the production, distribution, sale, ingredients, additives, packaging, labelling, and advertising for animal and pet foods in Nigeria are all governed by the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) and the Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) (Lähteenmäki-Uutela et al., 2021; Usman and Yusuf, 2020), but there are no specific laws for insects as food and feed. In Malawi, there is a national policy that promotes insect consumption. However, their Regulatory framework covers fishery products, not edible insects per se (Grabowski et al., 2020).
In South Africa, there is no specific guidelines supporting the consumption of insects (Niassy et al., 2018). However, this suggests that most institutions are responsible for food production, harvesting, transportation, processing, marketing and storage of available food products. Since there are limited legalities surrounding the use of insects as food and feed, there is a need for safety restrictions, animal welfare and marketing rules to be considered to utilize their benefits in Africa. But, again, African countries need local and regional laws to achieve smooth functioning of marketing edible insects and their products.
Comparison of insects as food and legal framework in Africa and other parts of the world
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2023; 10.1163/23524588-20230025
Comparison of insects as food and legal framework in Africa and other parts of the world
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2023; 10.1163/23524588-20230025
Comparison of insects as food and legal framework in Africa and other parts of the world
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2023; 10.1163/23524588-20230025
Differences in legalities between African countries in relation to other continents
Although there is limited information on the legalities supporting insects’ consumption as food and feed in Africa, some countries (Kenya and perhaps Cape Verde) have developed guidelines for the consumption and use of edible insects. Apart from these countries, there are no specific guidelines for the consumption of insects in other African countries. Further, the development of regulations and laws regarding edible insects is in its infancy on the African continent (Egonyu et al., 2021). Mariod (2020d) summarized how insects are consumed or used as feed and showed that using insects and their products for food and feed followed three different patterns. To begin with, in Anglo-Saxon nations, such as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the USA, and Australia, edible insects are not considered novel food. Hence, their import and sale have been permitted by the relevant food regulatory agencies. In contrast, non-English-speaking Western countries, have felt the need to have laws and supply permissions before enabling any promotion of insects as food and feed. Finally, in non-Western countries, such as Ghana, Benin and Kenya, insects constitute a common staple diet but are rarely exported or imported in their packed form. In these countries, unpackaged insects are commonly found in the native market. Thus, neither customs officials nor the Food and Drug Administration has ever had to deal with a prepared product containing insects and derived products. National guidelines have been issued by various European Union (EU) and non-EU countries, such as Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland (Grabowski et al., 2019). The authors further indicated that businesses involving insects as food and feed are only allowed within the legal framework of EU legislation in Croatia, Estonia, Ireland, Luxembourg and Slovenia but are prohibited in Sweden. The regulations on cricket farming in Thailand have been eased, and the country boasts the world’s largest cricket stock (Mariod, 2020d). Comparison of the legalities associated with insects as feed in Africa and other countries around the world are presented in Table 3.
According to Halloran et al. (2014), the European Union’s Regulation (EC) No. 68/2013 on the Catalogue of Feed Materials and Directive (EC) No. 2002/32/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on 7th May 2002 on Unwanted Substances in Animal Feed; EC Regulation 183/2005 laid down requirements for feed hygiene. The European Union has its own regulations for edible insects. First, the Animal by-products Regulation (EC Regulation No 1774/2002); EC Regulation No 142/2011 implementing Regulation (EC) No 1069/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council laid down health rules with respect to animal by-products and derived products not intended for human consumption and implementing Council Directive 97/78/EC. There is also Regulation (EU) No. 999/2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing rules for the prevention, control, and eradication of certain transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, as amended by Regulation (EU) No. 56/2013. The Commission Decision 2004/217/EC, Council Directives 79/373/EEC, 82/471/EEC, 83/228/EEC, 93/74/EEC, 93/113/EC, and 96/25/EC, and European Parliament and Council Regulation (EC) No 1831/2003 on the placement on the market and use of feed also regulate the edible insects within the European union. In Africa, although consumption of insects has a long history of application, legalities associated with the use of insects as food and feed, marketing laws and insect welfare are limited on the continent compared to Europe and Asia and the Americas.
A number of authors have indicated that there are a few regulations specifically governing insect farming and the widespread usage of insects as food and feed (Halloran et al., 2021). In the United States of America, the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) controls the use of insects as feed under the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (United States Code, Title 21). When used for their intended purpose, insects are legal to consume in the United States under the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (Title 21, US Code) (Lähteenmäki-Uutela et al., 2021). Moreover, good manufacturing practices should be used when raising insects for human consumption. With regard to insect welfare, there is no specific legislation insects and food and feed, and their marking in the USA. In Finland, although there is no specific Legislations on edible insects, the general food regulation (EC) No 178/2002; the Food Act 23/2006); regulation on the hygiene of foodstuffs ((EC) No 852/2004), (EU/2017/1017), Animal Welfare Act (247/1996); the Animal Welfare Decree (396/1996); Animal Transport Act (1429/2006); the Animal Diseases Act (441/2013) Act on Managing the Risks Caused by Invasive Alien Species (1709/2015); the Tort Liability Act (412/1974); Regulation (EC) No 852/2004; Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011; Nutrition and health claims on foods are regulated by the European Union’s (EU’s) Regulation (EC) No. 1924/2006, as are food enhancers such additives, aromas, and enzymes, are some of the regulations for using insects as feed.
9 Future perspectives
Possibilities of these insects also being sold in other regions of the world and the benefits and hurdles of this process
Edible insects are a valuable source of nutrients – high quality proteins, unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins and minerals – which rearing only requires limited water, land and feeding resources. In addition to that, edible insect farming is also suitable for the conversion of organic waste and only emits very low carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (FAO et al., 2013; Kelemu et al., 2015). Since the world human population is facing the challenge of feeding 10 billions of people expected in 2050 with sustainable and healthy food resources, edible insects have a high potential as innovative, highly nutritious, and sustainable protein source (FAO et al., 2013). Additionally, in Western countries, especially in North America, an increase of obesity and chronic diseases – i.e. diabetes and cardiovascular diseases – due to an unbalanced nutrition is observed (Atanu, 2012; van Huis, 2015). Therefore, insects would also be beneficial to shift this observed malnutrition burden by being a healthy source of nutrients (Bahar et al., 2020; Kelemu et al., 2015). Despite the consumption of edible insects in some areas – especially in western countries – of Africa decreasing in past years due to European and North American influence, they remain an important source of nutrients for indigenous tribes or low-income groups (Atanu, 2012; van Huis, 2015). Edible insects have a high potential and according to forecasts, their consumption will increase again by 2030, but in a different form (FAO et al., 2013; la Barbera et al., 2018; Raheem et al., 2019). Indeed, as people currently face difficulties integrating insects in their food habits because of the disgust factor – called “Yuck factor” – the processing of insects into flour and their integration in products; burger patties, protein bars, bread or cookies could make it easier for the world to accept them as a regular protein source (la Barbera et al., 2018; Raheem et al., 2019). In addition to the aforementioned “yuck factor” a further hurdle is legislation. This remains a predominant barrier especially in Europe. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) regulates insects as a food source very strictly, therefore restricting their integration into Western culture (Raheem et al., 2019). However, rapid changes are currently being observed and this will allow a faster increase in the consumption of insect foods.
Current insect diet in Africa and its possibility to change in future and its effects
The food situation in Africa is very complex; some are suffering from undernourishment and do not have regular access to food and clean water whilst others only consume processed and sugar-rich food causing an increase in obesity and other related chronic diseases (Melo and Tsikata, 2014; FAO et al., 2021). Although the FAO and World Health Organization (WHO) are working on educating the population on what a healthy diet is, it is likely that western processed food consumption in Africa will further increase in the next years (FAO and ECA and AUC, 2021; FAO, 2022b). Additionally, urban regions could experience an influx of residents due to increases in income or better economic opportunities which may see a change in eating patterns to mirror those currently seen in these areas (Kelemu et al., 2015). However, current food trends i.e. processed insect foods, high protein foods and vegan or vegetarian diets with meat alternatives, in Europa and North America are likely to spread to Africa (Atanu, 2012; van Huis, 2015). These types of trends could ameliorate the lifestyle of African urban livelihoods and reduce the currently increasing consumption of processed and high sugared foods, meat and dairy products, which are both detrimental to the environment and health (Bahar et al., 2020; Kelemu et al., 2015). What is interesting is the shift in the consumption form of edible insects: indeed, as traditional food, insects were eaten roasted or fried, in the next years they will be milled into flour or protein will be extracted and developed into products like burger patties, protein bars or bread – as in Europe and North-Africa – becoming a new food trend in Africa (Atanu, 2012; van Huis, 2015).
Corresponding author; e-mail: s.siddiqui@dil-ev.de
Supplementary Material
Supplementary material is available online at: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.24009021
Author contributions
SAS: conceptualization, validation, formal analysis, data curation, writing, original draft, writing, review and editing, visualization, supervision, resources, project administration, funding acquisition; OFA: writing, original draft; MG: writing, original draft; JO-O: writing, original draft, data curation; YRS: writing, original draft; KB: validation, formal analysis; WK: formal analysis; IF: writing, original draft, writing, review and editing; ABG: writing, review and editing; AAN: writing, review and editing.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Funding
This research received no funding.
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