Abstract
The literary miscellanies of the Song dynasty offer a rich corpus of material on ci poetry, including comprehensive analyses of three seminal ci poets from the Five Dynasties period and the Song dynasty: Li Yu, Liu Yong, and Su Shi. Li Yu holds the distinction of being the first literati ci poet in Chinese literary history. Liu Yong made significant contributions to the evolution of ci forms and techniques, while Su Shi revolutionized the style of ci and elevated its artistic realm. The literary miscellanies of the Song dynasty offer extensive commentary on these three poets, providing valuable insights into the evolution of ci poetry. In their analyses, the Song literati bifurcated Li Yu’s ci oeuvre into pre- and post-dynastic fall. They expressed sympathy for his ill-fated life, acknowledging his superior literary talents in contrast to his political abilities, and lauded his ci works that articulated “the sorrowful and contemplative tones of a fallen dynasty.” These scholars recognized Li Yu’s contribution in giving voice to the literati through the medium of ci. Liu Yong’s ci received mixed evaluations; while his vulgar style was both criticized and affirmed, his prolific creation of manci and narrative techniques garnered general approval. Regarding Su Shi, the literati commended his elevation of ci’s literary quality and his pioneering of the bold and unconstrained style. They offered nuanced critiques of his musical deficiencies in ci composition and his approach of composing ci as a secondary pursuit. The literary miscellanies also present balanced assessments of the debate between Liu and Su’s respective styles. These discussions are instrumental in laying the foundation for a systematic criticism of Chinese ci poetry.
The literary genre of ci
This study examines the Song dynasty perspective on ci poetry through the evaluation of three representative poets from the Five Dynasties period (907–960) to the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127) – Li Yu
Li Yu stands preeminent among ci poets of the Tang dynasty and the Five Dynasties period. Prior to Li Yu, literati ci poetry, exemplified by Wen Tingyun
This study posits Li Yu as the preeminent representative of ci poets from the Tang dynasty and the Five Dynasties period. During the Southern Tang dynasty (943–961), Emperor Yuanzong
Liu Yong emerged as the first professional ci poet in the Northern Song dynasty. His unconventional persona, vernacular ci style, prolific composition of manci
Su Shi stands as one of the most eminent intellectuals in Chinese literary history, achieving excellence in poetry, prose, calligraphy, and painting. His moral integrity, resilience, and transcendent worldview established him as a paragon for intellectuals across generations. His innovations in ci poetry include elevating the vernacular to the refined, pioneering a bold and unconstrained (haofang
The ci compositions of Li Yu, Liu Yong, and Su Shi collectively represent the achievements and evolutionary trajectory of ci poetry from the Five Dynasties through the Northern Song dynasty. An analysis of the commentary on these three poets and their respective circles, as preserved in Song dynasty literary miscellanies, offers insight into the development of ci poetry criticism during this era.
1 Analysis of Li Yu’s Literary Contributions to Ci Poetry
Li Yu
The initial phase of Li Yu’s reign was characterized by benevolent governance. He implemented policies to alleviate the populace’s burdens, including tax reductions, and maintained diplomatic deference to the Northern Song dynasty, resulting in over a decade of relative stability within his domain. However, his rule was also marked by excessive religious patronage, particularly in the ordination of Buddhist clergy, and a profound personal devotion to Buddhism. These predilections led to a neglect of state affairs. While Li Yu’s benevolence engendered goodwill among his subjects, it ultimately proved insufficient to preserve the Southern Tang state.
Li Yu’s ci poetry corpus can be bifurcated into two distinct periods. The early period, predating the Southern Tang’s collapse, predominantly explores themes of romantic entanglements and courtly opulence, exhibiting a notably ornate style. In contrast, the later period works, composed during the final days of his reign and post-surrender, reflect a shift in tone and subject matter. An exemplar of his early period ci, set to the tune pattern “Pusa man”
This ci poem is Li Yu’s depiction of his clandestine rendezvous with the younger Empress Zhou
Li Yu’s early ci poetry had already achieved considerable artistic maturity but lacked emotional depth. The scholars of the Song dynasty placed greater value on Li Yu’s works composed after the fall of his kingdom. For instance, Su Shi comments in juan 4 of his Dongpo zhilin
Having been betrayed by Fan Ruoshui
樊若水 , Li Yu surrendered his entire kingdom. He should have wept bitterly outside the ancestral temples, apologized to his people, and then departed. Instead, he shed tears before palace ladies and listened to farewell tunes from the court musicians!3
This critique posits that Li Yu, upon the collapse of his kingdom, composed poetry devoid of self-reproach or concern for his realm and subjects. Instead, his verses merely depicted tears shed before palace ladies and lamentations of separation – conduct unbefitting a sovereign of integrity and capability. Yuan Wen
Fenmen gujin leishi
Following his capitulation to the Song court, Li Yu frequently yearned for his former realm and ruminated on his dispersed consorts and concubines. In his melancholy, finding no solace, he composed a ci poem:
His ruminations, imbued with sorrow and melodious nuance, verge on emotional intolerability.4
This passage not only documents the contextual background of several of Li Yu’s post-dynastic ci poems, but also provides critical commentary on these works. The supposition by subsequent generations that this particular ci poem might represent Li Yu’s final composition is not without scholarly merit. The excerpted lines from Li Yu’s ci poem in this passage express profound pessimism, despair, and helplessness. Characterizing these works as exemplifying “the sorrowful and contemplative tones of a fallen dynasty”
Li Yu, the last sovereign of the Southern Tang dynasty, possessed erudition and manifold talents, with an innately benevolent disposition. However, he lacked effective governance capabilities. Moreover, given the prevailing geopolitical dynamics of the era, even had he possessed some degree of political acumen, he would have been powerless to alter the trajectory of events. Consequently, Li Yu, who might have flourished as a renowned literatus, was instead burdened with the mantle of monarchy. In the aftermath of his dynastic collapse, he expressed remorse for the erroneous execution of loyal ministers, an action he perceived as contributing to the kingdom’s downfall. This act of contrition led Emperor Taizong of Song
The literary miscellanies of the Song dynasty predominantly express empathy for Li Yu’s tragic circumstances, recognizing in his oeuvre what they termed “the sorrowful and contemplative tones of a fallen dynasty.” This phrase encapsulates the understanding that literary works depicting dynastic collapse are characterized by deep mournfulness and extended reflection, a quality particularly evident in Li Yu’s later compositions. However, there is a notable dearth of critical analysis regarding the superior linguistic artistry and authentic stylistic approach of his ci poetry – an omission that warrants scholarly attention.
Li Jing and Feng Yansi, whose poetic styles bear resemblance to that of Li Yu, receive limited discourse in these literary miscellanies. The singular exception of note is a celebrated literary anecdote concerning a discourse between Feng Yansi and Li Jing regarding the phrase “… ripples the spring pond’s face”
Emperor Yuanzong’s [Li Jing’s] yuefu
樂府 poem “In the small tower, the jade pipe plays on, piercing the cold”小樓吹徹玉笙寒 and Feng Yansi’s line “A sudden breeze ripples the spring pond’s face”風乍起，吹皺一池春水 are both considered exemplary. Li Jing once jested with Yansi, saying, “What concern is ‘A sudden breeze ripples the spring pond’s face’ to you?” Yansi replied, “It does not compare to Your Majesty’s ‘In the small tower, the jade pipe plays on, piercing the cold.’” Li Jing was pleased.6
Feng Yansi’s ci poem, titled “Ye Jinmen”
This composition fundamentally exemplifies a guiqing ci
Even if Feng Yansi’s opening line initially bore no satirical intent towards court affairs, this does not preclude Li Jing from discerning such criticism. This scenario exemplifies Tan Xian’s
2 Analysis of Liu Yong’s Literary Contributions to Ci Poetry
The ci poetry of the Late Tang and Five Dynasties periods predominantly adhered to a refined and orthodox style, with Li Yu serving as its preeminent exemplar. The literati of the early Song dynasty, including Yan Shu
Liu Yong, originally named Sanbian
Liu Yong’s ci poems are distinguished by their adept use of vernacular language. Their stylistic tenor resonates with the folk-style Dunhuang quzi ci that emerged in the Middle and Late Tang periods, while diverging significantly from the compositional interests of early Song lyricists such as Yan Shu and Ouyang Xiu.
The literary miscellanies of the Song dynasty devoted considerable attention to Liu Yong’s ci poems, focusing primarily on several key aspects.
2.1 Liu Yong’s Innovative Use of Vernacular Language and Its Reception
Since the Song dynasty, critical works on poetry (shihua
Emperor Renzong
仁宗 was concerned with Confucian decorum, emphasizing fundamentals and moral principles; he strongly disapproved of writing that was merely frivolous and casually amorous. The presented scholar Liu Sanbian was fond of composing lewd and lascivious ditties, which circulated widely. He had written a lyric to the tune titled “He chong tian”鶴冲天 that included the lines: “And I am ready to exchange\ An ephemeral name for a cup of wine and a soft song.” When His Majesty was reviewing the list of examination graduates in the forecourt, he singled out Liu Sanbian and failed him, saying: “Let him go off to his share of ‘cup of wine and soft song.’ What does he want with ‘an ephemeral name’?”8
Liu only passed the examination in the first year of the Jingyou reign (1034). He subsequently changed his name to Yong, and only then did he advance through official ranks. The complete lyric that Liu wrote for the exam reads as follows:
Chen Shidao
The aforementioned accounts elucidate the official stance towards Liu’s ci. Xu Du’s
Liu Yong achieved renown for his song lyrics during Emperor Renzong’s reign and held the official position of Assistant Director of Military- Agricultural Colonies, hence his sobriquet Liu Tuntian. Although his ci poems demonstrated structural sophistication, they frequently incorporated vernacular expressions, rendering them particularly appealing to the common populace. The subsequent emergence of literati such as Ouyang Xiu and Su Shi precipitated a stylistic shift in ci composition towards greater refinement and elegance. Consequently, while Liu Yong’s ci poems no longer garnered scholarly acclaim, they retained their popularity among the masses.11
This account attests to the profound appeal of Liu Yong’s ci poems among the general populace. Corroborating this widespread influence, a returning official from Western Xia (1038–1227) remarked, “Wherever there is well water, people can sing Liu Yong’s ci poems.” The extraordinary artistic appeal of Liu’s works primarily derives from his innovative use of vernacular language in ci composition.
The societal evolution of the Northern Song dynasty, characterized by a burgeoning urban economy and the emergence of a vibrant civic culture, provided the context for Liu Yong’s ci poetry to supplant the more formal compositions of the literati from the Five Dynasties and early Northern Song periods. This stylistic shift, marked by Liu’s distinctive use of vernacular language, represented a progressive trend in literary development. However, within the discursive framework dominated by literati culture, Liu Yong’s colloquial ci poems garnered more criticism than acclaim. This critical stance reflected an inherent bias and could be interpreted as an adherence to conservative, outdated poetics of ci composition. Such perspectives were prevalent among numerous ci poets and scholars of the era.
Beyond the literary miscellanies, many ci poets and scholars of the Song dynasty engaged in this discourse. Li Qingzhao
In our dynasty, with the refinement of ritual and music, and the flourishing of both civil and military affairs, it took over a hundred years of effort before Liu Yong emerged. He transformed the old tunes and created new ones, compiling the Yuezhangji and achieving great renown. Although his compositions are harmonious in rhythm, his diction is vulgar and base.12
Such assessments of Liu Yong’s work were often unduly severe and lacked impartiality, failing to recognize the innovative aspects of his poetic approach.
2.2 Liu Yong’s Contributions to Manci and Expansive Narrative Techniques
The Song critics’ appreciation of Liu Yong’s contributions to manci and his development of expansive narrative techniques extend to his thematic content. His ci poems encompassed a wide range of subjects, including celebrations of contemporary prosperity and peace, as well as reflections on travel and official duties.
Scholars since the Song dynasty have consistently analyzed this distinctive feature of Liu Yong’s ci poems. Chen Zhensun
While his ci poems may lack elevated style, they demonstrate rhythmic harmony and appropriate diction. Liu provides extensive depictions of the era’s prosperity and peace, excelling particularly in portraying the circumstances of sojourners and officials on distant assignments. His personal character, however, warrants no further comment.13
Within the corpus of these literary miscellanies, the perspectives of Wang Zhuo and Yan Youyi
Liu Yong’s Yuezhangji is widely esteemed for its comprehensiveness and scope. His narrative approach is characterized by effortless progression, structural coherence, and frequent inclusion of elegant phrases set to melodious rhythms. However, its superficiality and vernacular elements constitute a distinct stylistic approach, one that particularly resonates with the unlettered populace. I have previously likened Liu Yong’s ci poems to the scions of affluent families residing beyond the capital: though divested of rustic mannerisms, they retain a disagreeable demeanor.14
The effortless narrative progression and structural coherence noted by Wang Zhuo exemplify the artistic effect achieved through Liu’s composition of manci and his utilization of expansive narrative techniques. Nevertheless, Wang maintains a critical stance towards the “superficiality and vulgarity” evident in Liu’s works.
Yan Youyi, in his Yiyuan cihuang
2.3 Liu Yong’s Substantial Contributions to the Historical Development of Manci
An analysis of manci’s historical development reveals Liu Yong’s contributions to be substantial and pioneering. Extant materials from the Tang dynasty and Five Dynasties period indicate the existence of only approximately a dozen manci compositions.
Among the ci poets of the early Song dynasty, Zhang Xian
Of the approximately 880 tune patterns employed during the Song dynasty, Liu Yong innovated over 100, predominantly manci with long tune patterns. Liu’s work marked a departure from the xiaoling
Liu’s ci poems are distinguished by their expansive narration, exemplified in seminal works such as “Yu lin ling”
Approximately half of Liu Yong’s corpus comprises works of romantic dalliance, reflecting his associations with pleasure quarters and composition for courtesans. While his personal conduct was censured by traditional literati, his ci poems garnered praise for their melodious and harmonious qualities, as well as their meticulous narrative detail. Thematically, works such as “Yu lin ling” and “Basheng ganzhou,” which depict travel and official duties, indeed pioneered new domains in the ci of the Song dynasty. These compositions garnered widespread appreciation among the contemporary populace.
3 Analysis of Su Shi’s Literary Contributions to Ci Poetry
Su Shi stands as one of the preeminent polymaths in Chinese cultural history, achieving unparalleled mastery in poetry, prose, calligraphy, and painting. His extant corpus includes over three hundred ci. Su’s most significant contribution to the evolution of Song ci poetry lies in his pioneering of the bold and unconstrained style, which emerged as a formidable counterpart to the established delicate and restrained style (wanyue
However, it is noteworthy that Su’s foray into ci composition began relatively late in his career, commencing only around his thirtieth year. While his oeuvre encompasses several immortal masterpieces, it also includes numerous works that betray a lack of technical proficiency. Consequently, contemporary Song critiques of his ci poetry exhibit a wide spectrum of evaluations, ranging from severe censure to high praise. Conversely, modern scholarship tends towards an uncritical elevation of his work. Neither approach offers a sufficiently nuanced assessment of Su’s contributions to the ci genre.
Critical discourse on Su Shi’s ci poetry in the literary miscellanies of the Song dynasty encompasses several key aspects. These discussions offer valuable insights into contemporary perceptions of Su’s contributions to the ci genre. The following sections examine three primary areas of critique: rhythmic adherence, the relationship between shi and ci in Su’s works, and comparisons with other notable ci poets, particularly Liu Yong.
3.1 Evaluations of Rhythmic Adherence in Su Shi’s Ci Compositions
Fan Zhengmin’s
Su Shi purportedly acknowledged three domains in which he considered himself inferior: playing board games, alcohol consumption, and musical performance. However, the necessity of excelling in these particular areas is debatable. While Su’s ci poetry exhibits structural sophistication, it frequently fails to conform to established melodic patterns, a characteristic primarily attributed to his alleged deficiency in musical performance.17
In the fifth volume of Quwei jiuwen
Zhang Zhifu’s
章質夫 composition of “Shuilong yin”水龍吟 on the theme of willow catkins demonstrates ingenious conceptualization and refined literary allusions. While ostensibly bold and unconstrained, potentially diverging from established ci conventions, a meticulous analysis reveals harmonious rhythmic structures and exquisite prosody, exemplifying Zhang’s refined poetic craftsmanship. Chao Shuyong晁叔用 posited, “Su Shi’s natural poetic talent is comparable to the unadorned beauty of Wang Zhaojun王昭君 or Xi Shi西施 , who could rival the aesthetic appeal of all women without cosmetic enhancement. How could Zhang Zhifu’s technical proficiency possibly compare?”18
It is worth noting that Zhang Zhifu was Su Shi’s colleague and close friend. Chao Chongzhi
Fan Zhengmin contends that Su’s ci compositions lack musical harmony, attributing this deficiency to Su’s purported inability to perform music. Conversely, Zhu Bian argues that Su’s “Shuilong yin: ciyun Zhang Zhifu Yanghuaci”
Su Shi’s disciples frequently offered apologia for their master’s approach to rhythm in ci poetry. Huang Tingjian
In contrast, Li Qingzhao, in her seminal work Cilun
Regarding Yan Shu, Ouyang Xiu, and Su Shi, their erudition is indeed profound. However, their compositions in the xiaoci
小詞 genre are analogous to extracting a mere ladleful from a vast ocean. Their works often resemble poetry with irregular metrical structures and frequently deviate from established musical rhythms.19
The eminent Southern Song poet Lu You
Popular opinion holds that Su Shi’s inability to sing resulted in his ci poems often deviating from musical norms. However, Chao Yidao
晁以道 recounts: “In the early Shaosheng紹聖 period, upon bidding farewell to Su Shi in Bianliang, he, having consumed a substantial amount of alcohol, performed ‘Gu yangguan’古陽關 himself.” This suggests that Su’s apparent disregard for musical conventions stemmed not from inability, but from his bold, unrestrained nature, which eschewed meticulous adherence to rhythmic strictures.20
The categorical assertion that Su Shi lacked comprehension of musical rhythms and that his ci poems were inherently unsingable is, in fact, inaccurate. This author, in collaboration with a student, conducted research titled “A New Discourse on the Musical Adaptability of Su Shi’s Ci,” which identified 45 performable works among Su’s ci corpus, with 34 having confirmed titles and performance protocols. This study, building upon the work of Cao Shuming
It is, however, important to note that in comparison to contemporaries such as Liu Yong and Zhou Bangyan
3.2 The Influence of Shi Methodologies on Su Shi’s Ci Composition
This section examines the critical discourse surrounding Su Shi’s approach of “applying shi-derived literary techniques in ci composition” (yi shi wei ci
Chen Shidao, in his Houshan shihua, posits:
Han Yu
韓愈 applied prose techniques to poetry composition, while Su Shi utilized poetic methodologies in crafting ci. Despite universal acclaim for Su’s ci, they lack the hallmarks of genre-specific expertise. Among contemporary ci poets, only Qin Guan秦觀 and Huang Tingjian surpass their Tang dynasty predecessors.22
Chen Shidao’s assertion elicited widespread discourse both contemporaneously and in subsequent generations. Su’s disciples, Chao Buzhi and Zhang Lei
Chen Yingxing
Su Xun
蘇洵 lacked proficiency in poetry, Ouyang Xiu was not adept at composing fu賦 , Zeng Gong曾鞏 struggled with rhymed prose, Su Shi’s poetry resembled ci, and Qin Guan’s ci resembled poetry. Human talents are seldom comprehensive; even the ancients were not exempt from such limitations.24
Yu Hu Xiansheng refers to Zhang Xiaoxiang
Tang Heng
Late Tang ci poets produced numerous refined works, intricately carved like jade or delicately trimmed like flower branches. However, their excessive ornamentation often resulted in a deficiency of moral rectitude. Su Shi, concerned about ci’s potential descent into such aestheticism, sought to counteract this trend, though he feared his influence might be insufficient. Subsequently, during the Yuanyou
元佑 period, ci poets approached the genre as a form of literary experimentation, borrowing syntactical structures from shi poetry. This approach, devoid of florid embellishment, was essentially initiated by Su Shi.25
This passage affirms Su Shi’s method of applying shi methodologies to ci composition.
Certain scholars directly contested Chen Shidao’s assertion. Wang Ruoxu
As a virtuoso of poetry and prose, Su’s ci compositions were merely a form of literary recreation. He harbored no ambition to compete with the common literati. Su’s exceptional innate talent and his grandiloquent style likely account for the superiority of his ci poems over those of his contemporaries.27
This discourse encompasses two dimensions of Su Shi’s approach of “applying shi-derived literary techniques in ci composition.” The first dimension concerns whether this approach is indeed characteristic of Su’s ci. An examination of Su’s extant ci corpus suggests an affirmative conclusion. The second dimension pertains to the critical evaluation of this approach. Hu Zi, in his Tiaoxi yuyin conghua
Su Shi was candid about his approach of “applying shi-derived literary techniques in ci composition,” which can be interpreted as a deliberate aesthetic pursuit in his ci compositions. In a letter to Chen Jichang
You have presented me with new ci, each line imbued with vigor, reminiscent of a poet’s bold verses rather than xiaoci. However, the excessively unrestrained style may transcend the bounds of divine tolerance.29
In correspondence with Cai Jingfan
The new ci you have bestowed upon me is akin to the ancient masters’ poetry with lines of varying length. I am gratified by their reception and encourage your continued composition in this vein.30
Su Shi deliberately applied poetic criteria to evaluate ci, elevating those that met such standards while categorizing others as “subsidiary skills” (yuji
Su himself articulated: “That which cannot be fully expressed in poetry overflows into calligraphy and transforms into painting – all are subsidiary to poetry.”31 Evidently, in Su Shi’s perspective, xiaoci was also considered ancillary to shi poetry.
3.3 Comparative Analysis of Liu Yong and Su Shi’s Ci Poetry
This section explores the critical discourse in the literary miscellanies of the Song dynasty regarding the comparative analysis of Liu Yong and Su Shi’s contributions to ci poetry. Known as the “Liu-Su dichotomy” (Liu Su yitong lun
In his initial forays into ci composition, Su Shi regarded Liu Yong as a paradigmatic figure. In the second of his “Yu Xianyu Zijun sanshou”
Of late, I have been composing xiaoci with frequency. While they may lack the distinctive style of Liu Yong, they can be considered to have established their own aesthetic. Indeed, during a recent hunting expedition in the outskirts, I composed a ci to commemorate a bountiful harvest. I had the stalwarts of Dongzhou perform it with rhythmic hand-clapping and foot-stomping, accompanied by flutes and drums. The spectacle was quite impressive.32
Su Shi’s allusion to “the distinctive style of Liu Yong” clearly indicates his acknowledgment and appreciation of Liu’s ci. Regarding his own compositions, Su Shi’s objective was to differentiate himself from Liu Yong while “establishing his own school” (zishi yijia
The literary miscellanies of the Song dynasty also offer perspectives on the Liu-Su dichotomy. Wang Zhuo, in his Biji manzhi, posits:
Su Shi was not one to emphasize the musical rhythm. His occasional ci compositions pointed towards a path of literary ascendancy, refreshing the perspectives of all under heaven and inspiring ci poets to self-improvement. The notion propagated by contemporary youth that Su Shi merely transplanted poetic meters into lines of varying length, and that one must either emulate Liu Yong or Cao Zu
曹組 , is fallacious, though perhaps not worthy of derision.33
4 Conclusion
The Song dynasty witnessed a cultural efflorescence, characterized by significant advancements in diverse literary forms, including shi poetry, prose, and ci poetry. These genres experienced substantial cross-pollination and dialectical interaction, engendering novel inspirations among the literati. This period saw a proliferation of critical discourse on poetry, prose, and ci, with Song intellectuals propounding distinctive perspectives on various literary forms, demarcating an era of dialectical inquiry and rational discourse.
The extensive corpus of Song literary miscellanies, notable for their rich content and thematic diversity, encompasses a substantial volume of ci criticism. This study focuses on commentaries pertaining to the ci poems of Li Yu, Liu Yong, and Su Shi as exemplars, utilizing these to analyze the principal contributions of Song literary miscellanies to ci criticism.
During the mid to late Tang dynasty, quzi ci were predominantly composed by literati for musical performance, primarily in the form of xiaoling. These compositions functioned essentially as vehicles for entertainment at banquets and convivial gatherings. It was through Li Yu’s innovations that quzi ci metamorphosed into an instrument for literati self-expression. Consequently, ci evolved into a literary style with a relatively distinct function from poetry and a differentiated mode of emotional articulation. The literary miscellanies of the Song dynasty provide lucid elucidation of Li Yu’s seminal contribution in this regard.
Liu Yong, recognized as China’s first professional ci writer, flourished in the economically and culturally advanced milieu of the Song dynasty. He was particularly influenced by the ascendancy and market dominance of popular urban culture, a phenomenon precipitated by urban economic prosperity and the burgeoning of civic culture. This sociocultural context significantly shaped his ci composition. Liu’s ci poems predominantly employed vernacular language, constituting a major innovation that aligned with the Song dynasty’s cultural trajectory from refinement towards popularization. The creative essence of Liu’s ci poems resonated with Li Yu’s quzi ci. Liu Yong pioneered manci and extensively employed narrative techniques. He also innovated numerous new tunes. The majority of his ci works gave voice to lower-class women, such as courtesans, incorporating colloquial language into the genre and thereby introducing novel elements to Song ci. The literary miscellanies of the Song dynasty, while acknowledging Liu Yong’s achievements in creating new forms and tunes, simultaneously express profound dissatisfaction with his vernacular and florid style.
Su Shi, epitomizing the erudite literati, positioned his ci poetry in juxtaposition to Liu Yong’s style. Su continued to infuse ci poems with the multifaceted emotional palette of the scholar-official class and inaugurated the bold and unconstrained style of ci. Although this style never attained the pre-eminence of the delicate and restrained ci, it represented a significant innovation, “pointing towards a path of literary ascendancy for the genre.” Su’s approach of “applying shi-derived literary techniques in ci composition” yielded both advantages and limitations. Its strength lay in facilitating the articulation of literati sentiments, while its weakness manifested in some ci appearing stylistically incongruous and rhythmically discordant.
In the discourse surrounding the comparative merits of Liu and Su’s styles, the scholar-official class predominantly favored Su’s ci, while the urban populace maintained an affinity for Liu’s compositions. These critical discussions in Song literary miscellanies often predated analyses found in the cihua and cixuan
The multifaceted evaluations of Li Yu, Liu Yong, and Su Shi in the literary miscellanies of the Song dynasty are characterized by their richness of content and exhibit theoretical depth and systematicity. This phenomenon is rooted in profound historical and cultural factors, reflecting the Song literati’s innovative conceptions of ci studies. Several salient points merit attention:
Firstly, the Song dynasty was distinguished by its advanced economic and cultural milieu. Literati enjoyed elevated social status and favorable economic conditions, often maintaining geji
Secondly, the ascendancy of Neo-Confucian philosophy (lixue
Thirdly, the scholar-officials of the Song dynasty prioritized refinement over vulgarity (zhong ya chu su
Fourthly, the literary miscellanies of the Song dynasty offer nuanced analyses of the artistic aspects of ci. In their exegesis of Li Yu’s works, scholars affirm the lyrical characteristics of his ci, frequently theorizing from the perspective of xiaoling. With regard to Liu Yong, they commend his prolific composition of manci and his innovations in melodic structures, while acknowledging the profound impact of his narrative techniques on the evolution of ci. Their discourse on Su Shi centers on examining the merits and limitations of his approach of “applying shi-derived literary techniques in ci composition,” affirming his substantial contribution to the development of the bold and unconstrained style in ci.
These aforementioned critical perspectives, initially articulated in the literary miscellanies of the Song dynasty, subsequently evolved into pivotal propositions in the historiography of ci studies. Ci criticism in the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, when engaging with the oeuvres of Li Yu, Liu Yong, and Su Shi, frequently employed the discourse found in the literary miscellanies of the Song dynasty as a theoretical foundation, further developing and refining these ideas through rigorous scholarly inquiry.
Acknowledgement
This research is a phased achievement of the National Social Science Fund Project “Study on the Literary Miscellanies of the Song dynasty” (Project No. 16BZW058).
Translated by Jenny Lu
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Wang Guowei
Li Yu
Su Shi
Jingyin Wenyuange Siku quanshu
Ibid., 1047: 127.
Hu Zi
Ibid., 2: 39.317.
Wu Zeng
Ibid., 55.
Chen Shidao
Xu Du
Li Qingzhao
Chen Zhensun
Wang Zhuo
Hu Zi, Tiaoxi yuyin conghua, 2: 39.319.
Liu Xizai
Hu Zi, Tiaoxi yuyin conghua, 1: 42.284.
Zhu Bian
Li Qingzhao, Chongji Li Qingzhao ji, 54.
Lu You
Ding Fang
Chen Shidao, Houshan shihua, 309.
Hu Zi, Tiaoxi yuyin conghua, 1: 42.284. It states: “Su Shi once showed his xiaoci to Chao Buzhi and Zhang Lei, asking, ‘How do they compare to Qin Guan’s?’ Both replied, ‘Qin Guan’s poetry resembles xiaoci, while your xiaoci, sir, resemble poetry.’”
Sun Keqiang
Tang Heng
Wang Ruoxu
Ibid., 70–71.
Liu Xun
Su Shi
Ibid., 55.1662.
Ibid., 21.614.
Ibid., 53.1560.
Wang Zhuo, Biji manzhi, 85.